The nematode family Trichostrongylidae is divided into six subfamilies Trichostrongylinae, Libyostrongylinae, Haemonchinae, Cooperiinae, Ostertagiinae and Graphidiinae which are briefly reviewed. The key is based mainly on specimens examined by the authors and includes one genus in the Trichostrongylinae, three genera in the Libyostrongylinae, six in the Haemonchinae, seven in the Cooperiinae, 17 in the Ostertagiinae and two in the Graphidiinae. Pseudostertagia, Pararhabdonema, Parostertagia, Obeliscoides and Travassosius are briefly described, figured and considered as genera of uncertain affinities. Nine genera, namely, Moguranema, Neocooperia, Bergheia, Mazamastrongylus, Paramecistocirrus, Ostertagiana, Ostertamia, Graphidiella and Trichostrongyella, specimens of which have not been available to the authors for examination, are listed giving details of host, habitat and geographical location, together with a summary of the diagnostic characters as described by the original authors.

This review provides an inventory of the biodiversity of the anisakid species identified so far from fish and marine mammals of the NE Atlantic Ocean. The paper reviews and discusses various taxonomical and epidemiological aspects related to biodiversity assessment, with emphasis on: (1) taxa recognized as ‘biological species’ based on molecular/genetic markers; (2) current molecular/genetic approaches to identify the species at different developmental stages; (3) ecological data related to the actual geographical distribution and definitive host preferences of the species; (4) their distribution in various, commercially important fish species in northern European waters; (5) their possible occurrence in farmed fish; and, finally, (6) an update of their zoonotic potential as causative agents of anisakidosis in humans.

Using the indirect fluorescent antibody technique, the antibody response of cats to Brugia pahangi infections was studied using whole microfilariae and sectioned adult worms of B. pahangi as antigens. Microfilarial antigen was ineffective in detecting antibody response in cats during the microfilaraemic phase of the infection, although it was possible to detect circulating antibody in cats which became microfilaria negative after repeated and prolonged reinfection and in one cat which after infection failed to show microfilariae in its blood

The present study aimed to investigate the status of helminth infections in wild boars in the Bursa province of Turkey. For this purpose, during 2007–2008, 27 wild boars were necropsied and examined for helminths. Individual samples of tongue and diaphragm from 27 necropsied wild boars and an additional 22 tongue and diaphragm samples provided by hunters were examined by trichinoscopy and artificial digestion for Trichinella spp. larvae. Twenty animals (74%) were identified as being infected with at least one helminth species. Twelve species of helminths were detected, with the following prevalence rates: Metastrongylus apri (59%), Metastrongylus salmi (52%), Metastrongylus pudendotectus (52%), Dicrocoelium dendriticum (33%), Globocephalus urosubulatus (22%), Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus (19%), Gongylonema pulchrum (11%), Physocephalus sexalatus (7%), Trichuris suis (7%), Ascarops strongylina (4%), Hyostrongylus rubidus (4%) and Taenia hydatigena larvae (4%). Generally, lungworms were the predominant helminths. The highest mean abundance was observed for M. pudendotectus, and the lowest was determined for T. hydatigena larvae. Significant differences in the prevalence and intensity were found for D. dendriticum with respect to host age and sex, respectively. The mean intensity of M. pudendotectus was significantly influenced by the sex and age of the wild boars. This study is the first report describing the presence of M. salmi, M. pudendotectus, D. dendriticum,G. urosubulatus, M. hirudinaceus, P. sexalatus, A. strongylina and H. rubidus in wild boars in Turkey. All analysed muscle samples were negative for Trichinella spp. larvae.

The host-protective immune response to infection with gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes involves a range of interacting processes that begin with recognition of the parasite's antigens and culminate in an inflammatory reaction in the intestinal mucosa. Precisely which immune effectors are responsible for the loss of specific worms is still not known although many candidate effectors have been proposed. However, it is now clear that many different genes regulate the response and that differences between hosts (fast or strong versus slow or weak responses) can be explained by allelic variation in crucial genes associated with the gene cascade that accompanies the immune response and/or genes encoding constitutively expressed receptor/signalling molecules. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes have been recognized for some time as decisive in controlling immunity, and evidence that non-MHC genes are equally, if not more important in this respect has also been available for two decades. Nevertheless, whilst the former have been mapped in mice, only two candidate loci have been proposed for non-MHC genes and relatively little is known about their roles. Now, with the availability of microsatellite markers, it is possible to exploit linkage mapping techniques to identify quantitative trait loci (QTL) responsible for resistance to GI nematodes. Four QTL for resistance to Heligmosomoides polygyrus, and additional QTL affecting faecal egg production by the worms and the accompanying immune responses, have been identified. Fine mapping and eventually the identification of the genes (and their alleles) underlying QTL for resistance/susceptibility will permit informed searches for homologues in domestic animals, and human beings, through comparative genomic maps. This information in turn will facilitate targeted breeding to improve resistance in domestic animals and, in human beings, focused application of treatment and control strategies for GI nematodes.

The high prevalence of Toxocara in cats, dogs and foxes results in the contamination of soil with infective eggs of Toxocara spp. which are found in soil samples from public and private places worldwide. In Poland the most contaminated areas were city backyards where 38–53% of soil samples were positive, especially in the spring. Human exposure to infection with Toxocara spp. was proportional to the prevalence of eggs in the samples examined but soil texture was not a critical factor in the degree of soil contamination. Eggs of Toxocara spp. placed on the ground penetrated a sand soil profile slowly. Their presence in the superficial layer of soils and the role of earthworms are instrumental in the dissemination of Toxocara eggs.

In the present investigation a sample of 490 cod (Gadus morhua) was examined from three regions in the southern Baltic Sea (the Polish Exclusive Economic Zone, EEZ). Three species of anisakid nematodes with zoonotic potential, namely species of Contracaecum, Anisakis and Pseudoterranova, were found in the liver of cod, with Contracaecum being the most dominant species. The prevalence of infection was highest in the Western Baltic (22.5%) compared to the Central Baltic (10.4%) and the Gulf of Gdansk (3.4%). Generalized linear models (GLMs) were applied to analyse the prevalence of infection with Anisakis sp. and Contracaecum sp. relative to biological and spatial parameters. The effect of the sampling region, age and body length of the fish were significant in both GLMs. The effect of region was higher in the Western Baltic than in other regions. The prevalence of infection was correlated with the length of the fish and was higher in adult compared with sub-adult fish. These results suggest that the prevalence of infection with anisakid nematodes (especially Contracaecum sp.) in cod sampled in Polish waters of the Baltic Sea has significantly increased compared with previous studies undertaken over the past few decades.

The transmission, control and the relationship between Dicrocoelium dendriticum and its definitive (sheep and cattle) and intermediate (molluscs and ants) hosts under natural and experimental conditions are described. Eleven species of molluscs and four of ants were found infected with larval D. dendriticum in León province, north-west Spain. Infected ants were observed between April and November and in tetania at 7.5–26.9°C. The highest shedding of eggs by sheep and cattle was detected in winter. Two treatments applied in November and January were the most effective. In experimentally infected molluscs, the parasite was not visible under the stereomicroscope, at least until 50 days post-infection (p.i.). The prepatent period in experimentally infected lambs was 49–79 days p.i. The number of eggs per gram increased with the days p.i. and the parasite burden. The aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, leukocyte and neutrophil values of infected lambs increased, but those of lymphocytes decreased. Using the enzyme-linked immunosorbert assay technique, the IgG antibody response to excretory–secretory and somatic antigens of D. dendriticum was positive from day 30 p.i., although the maximum antibody levels were observed on day 60 p.i. The number of worms per lamb ranged between 30 and 2063. Cholangitis and cholangiectasia of the septal bile and hepatic ducts were observed. The best enzymatic systems for adult and larval D. dendriticum characterization were lactate dehydrogenase, glucose phosphate isomerase and phosphoglucomutase. Genetic variability of adult D. dendriticum was high using the random amplified polymorphic DNA technique.

A survey was undertaken to study the epidemiology of Toxocara spp. in 350 dogs and 181 cats. A prevalence of 82.6% was recorded for Toxocara canis and 42% for T. cati. The distribution of parasite burdens in both dogs and cats was overdispersed. The highest parasite prevalence rates and burdens were found in hosts of 12 to 24 weeks of age. No Toxocara parasites were found in cats between 0 to 4 weeks old. There was no significant difference in parasite prevalence between male and female dogs or between male and female cats. The relationships between host age and sex with parasite prevalence, burden and length are discussed. Female T. canis worms with mature ova and those with immature ova differed significantly with regard to their length. The relationship between the length of mature T. canis female worms and the proportion of body length occupied by the uterus was highly significant.

The bird nasal schistosome Trichobilharzia regenti is a new agent of cercarial dermatitis. Cercariae are able to penetrate the skin of birds and mammals including man. The parasite then attacks the central nervous system. The present study has shown that schistosomula avoid penetration of blood capillaries and enter the peripheral nerves of the legs of mice and ducks as early as 1 day post-infection (p.i.) and 1.5 days p.i., respectively. These peripheral nerves are used as a route to the spinal cord. In the specific host (duck) schistosomula were found in the spinal cord from 2 days p.i. until 15 days p.i. and in the brain from 12 days p.i. until 18 days p.i. In non-specific hosts (mice; inbred strains BALB/c, hr/hr, SCID) living schistosomula were found in the spinal cord from 2 days p.i. until 21 or 24 days p.i. (depending on the mouse strain) and in the brain of two (BALB/c, SCID) of three inbred strains from 3 days p.i. until 24 days p.i. No correlation was found between the infection dose and clinical status of the experimental hosts. A high affinity of schistosomula for the peripheral nerves was also proved in vitro, suggesting a new type of migratory behaviour in schistosomatids.

The genus Onchocerca (Nematoda: Filarioidea) consists of parasites of ungulate mammals with the exception of O. volvulus, which is a human parasite. The relationship between O. volvulus, O. ochengi and O. gibsoni remains unresolved. Based on morphology of the microfilariae and infective larvae, vector transmission and geographical distribution, O. ochengi and O. volvulus have been placed as sister species. Nevertheless, the cuticle morphology and chromosomal data (O. volvulus and O. gibsoni have n=4 while O. ochengi is n=5) suggest that O. gibsoni could be more closely related to O. volvulus than O. ochengi. Sequences from the 12S rRNA, 16S rRNA and ND5 mitochondrial genes have been used to reconstruct the phylogeny of five Onchocerca species including O. volvulus. Analyses with maximum likelihood and maximum parsimony showed that O. ochengi is the sister species of O. volvulus, in accordance with the classification based on morphology and geographical location. The separate specific status of the species O. gutturosa and O. lienalis was supported, although their phylogenetic relationship was not well resolved. The analyses indicated that the basal species was O. gibsoni, a South-East Asian and Australasian species, but this result was not statistically significant. The possible involvement of sympatric speciation in the evolution of this group of parasites is discussed.

It was confirmed that lambs born in the Central Tabelands area of New South Wales became infested with Ostertagia spp. to a potentially pathogenic level very early in their lives. By studying the faecal egg output of ewes in this area it was shown that a marked Ostertagia spp. egg count rise occurred in all lambing ewes at or closely associated with parturition. It was also shown that it was not likely that these ewes had themselves picked up many Ostertagia spp. larvae during the latter part of their pregnancy and that the parturient egg count rise mainly resulted from larvae ingested prior to, or early in, pregnancy.

Infection with Oesophagostomum sp. appears to be extremely common in man in northern Togo and Ghana Adult specimens were recovered from the intestinal lumen by treatment with pyrantel pamoate and the morphological characteristics of oesophagostomes of man could for the first time be compared with information available on the morphology of oesophagostomes of monkeys. The observations and measurements demonstrated that the species involved is Oesophagostomum bifurcum and that the eggs of this species cannot be differentiated from those of Necator americanus. Both infections occur simultaneously in the population involved. The L1 larvae, too, cannot be differentiated from hookworm L1 larvae. The L3 however, are characteristic. Diagnoses of human Oesophagostomum infections is based on the detection of these larvae in coprocultures. In the present paper, the eggs, the L1 and L3 larval stages and the adults, carefully described and photos are given.

An attempt was made to control Ostertagia ostertagi by feeding the nematode-trapping fungus Duddingtonia flagrans (DSM 6703) to grazing calves. One group of calves (group E) was fed the fungal material in the first two months of the grazing season while another group was a non-treated control group (group C). Group E showed significantly lower faecal egg count in August and September. On four occasions in July and September, the herbage larval counts were significantly lower on the plot with the fungal-treated group than those recorded on the control plot. The average abomasal larval and adult worm counts were significantly reduced in August in group E and the average total worm count in the abomasum of group E was reduced by 87% in August compared to the non-treated group C. In October, the difference in average abomasal worm counts between group E and C was insignificant. Due to weight loss at the end of the grazing season, the control group showed a significantly lower average weight increase.

Echinococcus granulosus, the aetiologic agent of cystic echinococcosis (CE), is one of the most important zoonotic helminthes worldwide. Isolates of the parasite show considerable genetic variation in different intermediate hosts. Several genotypes and species are described in different eco-epidemiological settings. This study investigated E. granulosus genotypes existing in livestock and humans from the province of Kerman, located in south-eastern Iran, using sequencing data of cox1 and nad1 mitochondrial genes. Fifty-eight E. granulosus isolates, including 35 from sheep, 11 from cattle, 9 from camels and 3 from goats, were collected from slaughterhouses throughout Kerman. One human isolate was obtained from a surgical case of CE. Mitochondrial cox1 and nad1 regions were amplified using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and 38 isolates were sequenced. Genotypes G1 (73.7%), G3 (13.2%) and G6 (13.1%) were identified from the isolates. G1 was the most common genotype from sheep (86.7%), cattle (80%), camels (44.4%) and goats (100%). Sheep, cattle and camels were also found to be infected with the G3 genotype (buffalo strain). The human isolate was identified as the G6 genotype. Results showed that the G3 genotype occurred in different animal hosts in addition to G1 and G6 genotypes.

A new entomopathogenic nematode in the genus Heterorhabditis is described from South Africa, from two singular isolates found 1000 km from each other, from beneath a fig tree and in a citrus orchard, respectively. Morphological and molecular studies indicate both isolates to be the same and a new undescribed Heterorhabditis species. Comparison of sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) rDNA and the D2D3 region of the 28S rDNA gene with available sequences of other described species within the genus, indicate the two isolates as a new species. Phylogenetic analysis of the sequence data concerned placed the new species, H. noenieputensis n. sp., closest to H. indica and H. gerrardi in the indica-group. The new species, H. noenieputensis n. sp., is distinguished from other species in the genus by a combination of several morphological traits of the males and the infective juveniles (IJs). The new species differs from all other species previously described, as regards the body length of the IJs, except for H. indica and H. taysearae, in which the IJ is smaller. The IJ also differs from that of H. indica in the length of the oesophagus, the body diameter, the length of the tail and the E%. In addition, males of H. noenieputensis n. sp. differ from their closest relative, H. indica, in the position of the excretory pore, SW% and D%; and from H. gerrardi in the length of the oesophagus and SW%. The seventh pair of genital papillae of H. noenieputensis n. sp. are normally developed, while for H. indica they are often branched or swollen at the base, while 8 and 9 are usually absent in both species.

The vast majority of the helminthic parasites of man are represented among those animals which are in close contact with man, either by the same species or at least, by closely related forms. A very noticeable exception is Enterobius vermicularis. Possibly owing to its special life-history, it has become highly specialised for its human host and to find its closest relations, it is necessary to examine the forms found in primates.

The object of this paper is accordingly to systematise our knowledge of the oxyurid worms found in this group.

As Enterobius vermicularis is the most important of these, it has been found desirable to briefly re-describe its anatomy, followed by that of the related species, in apes, in monkeys and other primates.

As a significant zoonosis, cystic echinococcosis (CE) is endemic in some parts of the world, such as the Middle East. There are studies on the prevalence of this infection in animal and human reservoirs in Iran; hence, we conducted this meta-analysis to elucidate the prevalence of CE in Iran. English (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct and Google Scholar) and Persian (Magiran, Iran Medex, Iran Doc and SID) databases were explored. In the case of definitive, animal and human intermediate hosts, 37, 90 and 33 studies, respectively, have been included in the current review from January 1990 to December 2015. According to outcomes of the heterogeneity test, either Der Simonian and Laird's random-effects method or Mantel–Haenszel's fixed-effects method were employed to pool the estimations. The pooled prevalence of Echinococcus granulosus infection in definitive hosts was calculated as 23.6% (95% confidence interval (CI) = 17.6–30.1%). The weighted prevalence of animal and human hydatidosis was calculated as 15.6% (95% CI = 14.2–17.1%) and 4.2% (95% CI = 3.0–5.5%), respectively. Meanwhile, most cases of human hydatidosis were in southern Iran, with a prevalence of 5.8% (3.2–9.2%). In terms of human hydatidosis, more infections were found in rural regions, and mostly in female individuals. Egger's regression test revealed publication bias, with a remarkable impact on total prevalence of the infection in animal intermediate hosts (P < 0.001), while it was not significant in human hosts (P = 0.4) and definitive hosts (P = 0.3). According to the weighted estimated prevalence of cystic echinococcosis and its financial burden, implementing appropriate control programmes should be compulsory to decrease the burden of the disease in Iran.

The intrauterine development of Brugia pahangi embryos was followed from after fertilization to birth, using light and electron microscopy. The origin and development of the sheath of the microfilaria and its Possible role in the nutrition of the developing embryo were particularly investigated. Comparisons were drawn with the intrauterine development of other filarial species. The egg shell of the B. pahangi embryo js distinct from the oolemma and forms the sheath of the microfilaria. It is suggested that the electron dense material released by cells of the uterine wall and passing along the channels between the egg shells of adjacent embryos is nutritive. The death of large numbers of developing embryos in the central uterine Jumen is probably caused by overcrowding as their size rapidly increases, leading to nutritional deficiency.