Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T09:41:58.435Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Shouldn't Dead Be Dead?: The Search for a Uniform Definition of Death

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2021

Abstract

In 1968, the definition of death in the United States was expanded to include not just death by cardiopulmonary criteria, but also death by neurologic criteria. We explore the way the definition has been modified by the medical and legal communities over the past 50 years and address the medical, legal and ethical controversies associated with the definition at present, with a particular highlight on the Supreme Court of Nevada Case of Aden Hailu.

Type
Independent Articles
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics 2017

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Wijdicks, E. F. M., “The Neurologist and Harvard Criteria for Brain Death,” Neurology 61, no. 7 (2003): 970-976.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belkin, G., Death Before Dying (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014).Google Scholar
“A Definition of Irreversible Coma: Report of the Ad Hoc Committee of the Harvard Medical School to Examine the Definition of Brain Death,” JAMA 205, no. 6 (1968): 337-340.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Wijdicks, supra note 1; Beecher, H. K., “After the ‘Definition of Irreversible Coma,’” New England Journal of Medicine 281, no. 19 (1969): 1070-1071.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Defining Death: Medical, Legal and Ethical Issues in the Determination of Death. President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1981).Google Scholar
Wijdicks, E. F. M., “Determining Brain Death in Adults,” Neurology 45, no. 5 (1995): 1003-1011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wijdicks, E. F. M. et al., “Evidence-Based Guideline Update: Determining Brain Death in Adults: Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology,” Neurology 74, no. 23 (2010): 1911-1918; see also supra note 7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greer, D. M. et al., “Variability of Brain Death Policies in the United States,” JAMA Neurology 73, no. 2 (2016): 213-218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
In re Guardianship of Hailu, 361 P.3d 524.(2015).Google Scholar
Associated Press, “20-Year-Old Woman Involved in Months-Long Court Battle over Treatment at Reno Hospital Dies on Life Support,” Daily News, January 5, 2016.Google Scholar
In re Guardianship of Hailu, 361 P.3d 524.(2015).Google Scholar
In re Welfare of Bowman, 617 P. 2d 731.(1980); In re Haymer, 115 Ill.App.3d 349, 450 N.E.2d 940.(1983).Google Scholar
10 N.Y.C.R.R. § 400.16.Google Scholar
Ala. Code §22-31-1; Alaska Stat. §09.68.120; Ariz. Rev. Stat. §14-1107; Ark. Code §20-17-101; Ca. Health & Saf. Code §7180; Colo. Rev. Stat. §12-36-136; Conn. Gen. Stat. §19a-504a; Del. Code. Tit. 24, §1760; Fla. Stat. §765.511; Ga. Code. Ann. §31-10-16; Haw. Rev. Stat. §327C-1; Idaho Code Ann. §54-1819; Ind. Code §1-1-4-3; Iowa Code § 702.8; Kan. Stat. Ann. §77-205; Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. §446.400; La. Stat. Ann. §9:111; Me. Stat. Tit. 22, §2811; Md. Code, Com. Law §5—202; Mass. Gen. Laws Ch. 190B, §1-107; Mich. Comp. Laws §333.1033; Minn. Stat. §145.135; Miss. Code Ann. §41-36-3; Mo. Rev. Stat. §194.005; Mont. Code Ann. §50-22-101; Neb. Rev. Stat. §71-7202; Nev. Rev. Stat. §451.007; N.J. Rev. Stat. §26:6A; N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. §141-D:2; N.M. Stat. §12-2-4; N.C. Gen. Stat. §90-323; N.D. Cent. Code §23-06.3-01; Ohio Rev. Code §2108.40; Okla. Stat. Tit. 63, §3122; Or. Rev. Stat. §112.582; 35 Pa. Cons. Stat. §10203; 23 R. I. Gen. Laws §23-4-26; S.C. Code Ann. §44-43-460; S.D. Codified Laws §34-25-18.1; Tenn. Code Ann. §68-3-501; Tex. HS. Code §671.001; Utah Code §26-34-2; Vt. Stat. Ann. Tit. 18, §5218; Va. Code Ann. §54.1-2972; W. Va. Code § 16-10-01; Wis. Stat. Ann. § 146.71; Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 35-19-101; D. C. Code § 7—601.Google Scholar
In re Welfare of Bowman, 617 P. 2d 731.(1980); Ca. Health & Saf. Code §7180; Del. Code. Tit. 24, §1760; Ind. Code §1-1-4-3; Minn. Stat. §145.135; Nev. Rev. Stat. §451.007; Tenn. Code Ann. §68-3-501; Kan. Stat. Ann. §77-204; Me. Stat. Tit. 22, §2813; Neb. Rev. Stat. §71-7201; N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. §141-D:1; Okla. Stat. Tit. 63, §3121; 35 Pa. Cons. Stat. §10201; S.C. Code Ann. §44-43-450; Utah Code §26-34-1; W. Va. Code § 16-10-04; Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 35-19-103.Google Scholar
Ca. Health & Saf. Code §7180; Del. Code. Tit. 24, §1760; Ind. Code §1-1-4-3; Nev. Rev. Stat. §451.007; Tenn. Code Ann. §68-3-501; Me. Stat. Tit. 22, §2812; Neb. Rev. Stat. §71-7203; Okla. Stat. Tit. 63, §3123; 35 Pa. Cons. Stat. §10202; W. Va. Code § 16-10-02; Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 35-19-102.Google Scholar
In re Welfare of Bowman, 617 P. 2d 731.(1980); 10 N.Y.C.R.R. § 400.16; Ala. Code §22-31-1; Alaska Stat. §09.68.120; Ark. Code §20-17-101; Ca. Health & Saf. Code §7180; Colo. Rev. Stat. §12-36-136; Conn. Gen. Stat. §19a-504a; Del. Code. Tit. 24, §1760; Idaho Code Ann. §54-1819; Ind. Code §1-1-4-3; Kan. Stat. Ann. §77-205; Me. Stat. Tit. 22, §2811; Mass. Gen. Laws Ch. 190B, §1-107; Mich. Comp. Laws §333.1033; Miss. Code Ann. §41-36-3; Mont. Code Ann. §50-22-101; Neb. Rev. Stat. §71-7202; Nev. Rev. Stat. §451.007; N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. §141-D:2; N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. §141-D:2; N.D. Cent. Code §23-06.3-01; Ohio Rev. Code §2108.40; Okla. Stat. Tit. 63, §3122; Or. Rev. Stat. §112.582; 35 Pa. Cons. Stat. §10203; 23 R. I. Gen. Laws §23-4-26; S.C. Code Ann. §44-43-460; S.D. Codified Laws §34-25-18.1; Tenn. Code Ann. §68-3-501; Utah Code §26-34-2; Vt. Stat. Ann. Tit. 18, §5218; W. Va. Code § 16-10-01; Wis. Stat. Ann. § 146.71; Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 35-19-101; D. C. Code § 7—601Google Scholar
In re Welfare of Bowman, 617 P. 2d 731.(1980); In re Haymer, 115 Ill.App.3d 349, 450 N.E.2d; 940.(1983); 10 N.Y.C.R.R. § 400.16; Ala. Code §22-31-1; Alaska Stat. §09.68.120; Ark. Code §20-17-101; Ca. Health & Saf. Code §7180; Colo. Rev. Stat. §12-36-136; Conn. Gen. Stat. §19a-504a; Del. Code. Tit. 24, §1760; Fla. Stat. §765.511; Ga. Code. Ann. §31-10-16; Haw. Rev. Stat. §327C-1; Idaho Code Ann. §54-1819; Ind. Code §1-1-4-3; Iowa Code § 702.8; Kan. Stat. Ann. §77-205; Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. §446.400; La. Stat. Ann. §9:111; Me. Stat. Tit. 22, §2811; Md. Code, Com. Law §5—202; Mass. Gen. Laws Ch. 190B, §1-107; Mich. Comp. Laws §333.1033; Minn. Stat. §145.135; Miss. Code Ann. §41-36-3; Mo. Rev. Stat. §194.005; Mont. Code Ann. §50-22-101; Neb. Rev. Stat. §71-7202; Nev. Rev. Stat. §451.007; N.J. Rev. Stat. §26:6A; N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. §141-D:2; N.M. Stat. §12-2-4; N.D. Cent. Code §23-06.3-01; Ohio Rev. Code §2108.40; Okla. Stat. Tit. 63, §3122; Or. Rev. Stat. §112.582; 35 Pa. Cons. Stat. §10203; 23 R. I. Gen. Laws §23-4-26; S.C. Code Ann. §44-43-460; S.D. Codified Laws §34-25-18.1; Tenn. Code Ann. §68-3-501; Tex. HS. Code §671.001; Utah Code §26-34-2; Vt. Stat. Ann. Tit. 18, §5218; Va. Code Ann. §54.1-2972; W. Va. Code § 16-10-01; Wis. Stat. Ann. § 146.71; Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 35-19-101; D. C. Code § 7—601.Google Scholar
In re Haymer, 115 Ill.App.3d 349, 450 N.E.2d; 940.(1983); Iowa Code § 702.8; La. Stat. Ann. §9:111; N.C. Gen. Stat. §90-323; Tex. HS. Code §671.001.Google Scholar
In re Welfare of Bowman, 617 P. 2d 731.(1980); 10 N.Y.C.R.R. § 400.16; Ala. Code §22-31-1; Alaska Stat. §09.68.120; Ariz. Rev. Stat. §14-1107; Ark. Code §20-17-101; Ca. Health & Saf. Code §7180; Colo. Rev. Stat. §12-36-136; Conn. Gen. Stat. §19a-504a; Del. Code. Tit. 24, §1760; Idaho Code Ann. §54-1819; Ind. Code §1-1-4-3; Kan. Stat. Ann. §77-205; Me. Stat. Tit. 22, §2811; Mass. Gen. Laws Ch. 190B, §1-107; Mich. Comp. Laws §333.1033; Miss. Code Ann. §41-36-3; Mont. Code Ann. §50-22-101; Neb. Rev. Stat. §71-7202; Nev. Rev. Stat. §451.007; N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. §141-D:2; N.M. Stat. §12-2-4; N.D. Cent. Code §23-06.3-01; Ohio Rev. Code §2108.40; Okla. Stat. Tit. 63, §3122; Or. Rev. Stat. §112.582; 35 Pa. Cons. Stat. §10203; 23 R. I. Gen. Laws §23-4-26; S.C. Code Ann. §44-43-460; S.D. Codified Laws §34-25-18.1; Tenn. Code Ann. §68-3-501; Utah Code §26-34-2; Vt. Stat. Ann. Tit. 18, §5218; W. Va. Code § 16-10-01; Wis. Stat. Ann. § 146.71; Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 35-19-101; D. C. Code § 7—601.Google Scholar
In re Haymer, 115 Ill.App.3d 349, 450 N.E.2d; 940.(1983); Fla. Stat. §765.511; Haw. Rev. Stat. §327C-1; Iowa Code § 702.8; Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. §446.400; La. Stat. Ann. §9:111; Md. Code, Com. Law §5—202; Minn. Stat. §145.135; Mo. Rev. Stat. §194.005; N.J. Rev. Stat. §26:6A; N.C. Gen. Stat. §90-323; Tex. HS. Code §671.001; Va. Code Ann. §54.1-2972.Google Scholar
Ga. Code. Ann. §31-10-16.Google Scholar
Idaho Code Ann. §54-1819.Google Scholar
Va. Code Ann. §54.1-2972.Google Scholar
N.J. Rev. Stat. §26:6A.Google Scholar
Ind. Code §1-1-4-3; Neb. Rev. Stat. §71-7202; 35 Pa. Cons. Stat. §10203.Google Scholar
Ala. Code §22-31-2.Google Scholar
Ariz. Rev. Stat. §14-1107.Google Scholar
Ga. Code. Ann. §31-10-16.Google Scholar
N.C. Gen. Stat. §90-323.Google Scholar
Ala. Code §22-19-173; Alaska Stat. §13.52.223; Ariz. Rev. Stat. §36-852; Ark. Code §20-17-1214; Ca. Health & Saf. Code §7150.65; Colo. Rev. Stat. §12-34-114; Conn. Gen. Stat. §19a-289m; Del. Code. Tit. 16, §2716; D. C. Code § 7-1531.13; Fla. Stat. §765.517; Ga. Code. Ann. §44-5-152; Haw. Rev. Stat. §327-14; Idaho Code Ann. §39-3415; 755 Ill. Comp. Stat. §50/5-45; Ind. Code §29-2-16.1-15; Iowa Code §142C.8; Kan. Stat. Ann. §65-3233; Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. §311.1935; La. Stat. Ann. §17:2357; Me. Stat. Tit. 22, §2954; Md. Code, Com. Law §4-512; Mass. Gen. Laws Ch. 113A, §14; Mich. Comp. Laws §333.10114; Minn. Stat. §525A.14; Miss. Code Ann. §41-39-127; Mo. Rev. Stat. §194.265; Mont. Code Ann. §72-17-301; Neb. Rev. Stat. § 71-4837; Nev. Rev. Stat. §451.579; N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. §291-A:14; N.J. Rev. Stat. §26:6-89; N.M. Stat. §24-6B-14; N.Y. U.C.C. Law §4306; N.C. Gen. Stat. §130A-412.16; N.D. Cent. Code §23-06.6-13; Ohio Rev. Code §2108.16; Okla. Stat. Tit. 63, §2200.14A; Or. Rev. Stat. §97.972; 20 Pa. Cons. Stat. §8616; 23 R. I. Gen. Laws §23-18.6.1-14; S.C. Code Ann. §44-43-365; S.D. Codified Laws §34-26-61; Tenn. Code Ann. §68-30-114; Tex. HS. Code §692A.014; Utah Code §26-28-114; Vt. Stat. Ann. Tit. 18, §5250n; Va. Code Ann. §32.1-291.14; 68.64.120; W. Va. Code § 16-19-14; Wis. Stat. Ann. § 157.06; Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 35-5-213.Google Scholar
Vt. Stat. Ann. Tit. 18, §5250n.Google Scholar
Fla. Stat. §765.517.Google Scholar
Iowa Code §142C.8.Google Scholar
N.J. Rev. Stat. §26:6-89; 20 Pa. Cons. Stat. §8616.Google Scholar
Mont. Code Ann. §72-17-301.Google Scholar
Ca. Health & Saf. Code §7150.20.Google Scholar
Okla. Stat. Tit. 63, §3122; Va. Code Ann. §54.1-2972.Google Scholar
Va. Code Ann. §54.1-2972.Google Scholar
10 N.Y.C.R.R. § 400.16; N.J. Rev. Stat. §26:6A; Ca. Health & Saf. Code §1254.4; 210 Ill. Comp. Stat. §85/6.24.Google Scholar
N.J. Rev. Stat. §26:6A.Google Scholar
10 N.Y.C.R.R. § 400.16.Google Scholar
Ca. Health & Saf. Code §1254.4.Google Scholar
210 Ill. Comp. Stat. §85/6.24.Google Scholar
See President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research, supra note 7.Google Scholar
In re Guardianship of Hailu, 361 P.3d 524.(2015); In re Welfare of Bowman, 617 P. 2d 731.(1980); In re Haymer, 115 Ill. App.3d 349, 450 N.E.2d 940.(1983); 10 N.Y.C.R.R. § 400.16; Ala. Code §22-31-1; Alaska Stat. §09.68.120; Ariz. Rev. Stat. §14-1107; Ark. Code §20-17-101; Ca. Health & Saf. Code §7180; Colo. Rev. Stat. §12-36-136; Conn. Gen. Stat. §19a-504a; Del. Code. Tit. 24, §1760; Fla. Stat. §765.511; Ga. Code. Ann. §31-10-16; Haw. Rev. Stat. §327C-1; Idaho Code Ann. §54-1819; Ind. Code §1-1-4-3; Iowa Code § 702.8; Kan. Stat. Ann. §77-205; Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. §446.400; La. Stat. Ann. §9:111; Me. Stat. Tit. 22, §2811; Md. Code, Com. Law §5—202; Mass. Gen. Laws Ch. 190B, §1-107; Mich. Comp. Laws §333.1033; Minn. Stat. §145.135; Miss. Code Ann. §41-36-3; Mo. Rev. Stat. §194.005; Mont. Code Ann. §50-22-101; Neb. Rev. Stat. §71-7202; Nev. Rev. Stat. §451.007; N.J. Rev. Stat. §26:6A; N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. §141-D:2; N.M. Stat. §12-2-4; N.C. Gen. Stat. §90-323; N.D. Cent. Code §23-06.3-01; Ohio Rev. Code §2108.40; Okla. Stat. Tit. 63, §3122; Or. Rev. Stat. §112.582; 35 Pa. Cons. Stat. §10203; 23 R. I. Gen. Laws §23-4-26; S.C. Code Ann. §44-43-460; S.D. Codified Laws §34-25-18.1; Tenn. Code Ann. §68-3-501; Tex. HS. Code §671.001; Utah Code §26-34-2; Vt. Stat. Ann. Tit. 18, §5218; Va. Code Ann. §54.1-2972; W. Va. Code § 16-10-01; Wis. Stat. Ann. § 146.71; Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 35-19-101; D. C. Code § 7—601.Google Scholar
Shemie, S. D. et al., “International Guideline Development for the Determination of Death,” Intensive Care Medicine 40, no. 6 (2014): 788-797.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sprung, C. L. et al., “Seeking Worldwide Professional Consensus on the Principles of End-of-Life Care for the Critically Ill: The Consensus for Worldwide End-of-Life Practice for Patients in Intensive Care Units (WELPICUS) Study,” American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 190, no. 8 (2014): 855-866.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
In re Guardianship of Hailu, 361 P.3d 524.(2015).Google Scholar
Karakatsanis, K. G., “Brain Death: Should It Be Reconsidered?” Spinal Cord 46, no. 6 (2008): 396-401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ariz. Rev. Stat. §14-1107.Google Scholar
In re Welfare of Bowman, 617 P. 2d 731.(1980); In re Haymer, 115 Ill.App.3d 349, 450 N.E.2d 940.(1983); 10 N.Y.C.R.R. § 400.16; Ala. Code §22-31-1; Alaska Stat. §09.68.120; Ark. Code §20-17-101; Ca. Health & Saf. Code §7180; Colo. Rev. Stat. §12-36-136; Conn. Gen. Stat. §19a-504a; Del. Code. Tit. 24, §1760; Fla. Stat. §765.511; Ga. Code. Ann. §31-10-16; Haw. Rev. Stat. §327C-1; Idaho Code Ann. §54-1819; Ind. Code §1-1-4-3; Iowa Code § 702.8; Kan. Stat. Ann. §77-205; Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. §446.400; La. Stat. Ann. §9:111; Me. Stat. Tit. 22, §2811; Md. Code, Com. Law §5—202; Mass. Gen. Laws Ch. 190B, §1-107; Mich. Comp. Laws §333.1033; Minn. Stat. §145.135; Miss. Code Ann. §41-36-3; Mo. Rev. Stat. §194.005; Mont. Code Ann. §50-22-101; Neb. Rev. Stat. §71-7202; Nev. Rev. Stat. §451.007; N.J. Rev. Stat. §26:6A; N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. §141-D:2; N.M. Stat. §12-2-4; N.C. Gen. Stat. §90-323; N.D. Cent. Code §23-06.3-01; Ohio Rev. Code §2108.40; Okla. Stat. Tit. 63, §3122; Or. Rev. Stat. §112.582; 35 Pa. Cons. Stat. §10203; 23 R. I. Gen. Laws §23-4-26; S.C. Code Ann. §44-43-460; S.D. Codified Laws §34-25-18.1; Tenn. Code Ann. §68-3-501; Tex. HS. Code §671.001; Utah Code §26-34-2; Vt. Stat. Ann. Tit. 18, §5218; Va. Code Ann. §54.1-2972; W. Va. Code § 16-10-01; Wis. Stat. Ann. § 146.71; Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 35-19-101; D. C. Code § 7—601.Google Scholar
In re Haymer, 115 Ill.App.3d 349, 450 N.E.2d 940.(1983); Iowa Code § 702.8; La. Stat. Ann. §9:111; N.C. Gen. Stat. §90-323; Tex. HS. Code §671.001.Google Scholar
In re Haymer, 115 Ill.App.3d 349, 450 N.E.2d 940.(1983); Iowa Code § 702.8; La. Stat. Ann. §9:111; N.C. Gen. Stat. §90-323; Tex. HS. Code §671.001.Google Scholar
Burkle, C. M., Sharp, R. R., and Wijdicks, E. F., “Why Brain Death Is Considered Death and Why There Should Be No Confusion,” Neurology 83, no. 16 (2014): 1464-1469; see Shemie et al., supra note 60; Sprung et al., supra note 61.Google Scholar
Siminoff, L. A., Burant, C., and Youngner, S. J., “Death and Organ Procurement: Public Beliefs and Attitudes,” Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 14, no. 3 (2004): 217-234; S. K. Shah, K. Kasper, and F. G. Miller, “A Narrative Review of the Empirical Evidence on Public Attitudes on Brain Death and Vital Organ Transplantation: The Need for Better Data to Inform Policy,” Journal of Medical Ethics 41, no. 4 (2015): 291-296; A. Lewis. “The History of Brain Death and How the Jahi McMath Case Will Impact Future Brain Dead Patients,” Medicine and Law 34, no. 3 (2015): 497-508; A. Bagheri et al., “Brain Death and Organ Transplantation: Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practice among Japanese Students,” Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 13, no. 1 (2003): 3-5; N. Wig, P. Gupta, and S. Kailash, “Awareness of Brain Death and Organ Transplantation among Select Indian Population,” Journal of the Association of Physicians in India 51 (2003): 455-458.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Siminoff, Burant, and Youngner, supra note 70; Shah, Kasper, and Miller, supra note 70.Google Scholar
Lewis, A., Varelas, P., and Greer, D., “Prolonging Support after Brain Death: When Families Ask for More,” Neurocritical Care 24, no. 3 (2016): 481-7.Google Scholar
10 N.Y.C.R.R. § 400.16; N.J. Rev. Stat. §26:6A; Ca. Health & Saf. Code §1254.4; 210 Ill. Comp. Stat. §85/6.24.Google Scholar
Burt, R. A., “The Medical Futility Debate: Patient Choice, Physician Obligation, and End-of-Life Care,” Journal of Palliative Medicine 5, no. 2 (2002): 249-254.Google Scholar
See President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research, supra note 7.Google Scholar
See Burkle, Sharp, and Wijdicks, supra note 69; Lewis, Varelas, and Greer, supra note 72.Google Scholar
See President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research, supra note 7.Google Scholar
In re Welfare of Bowman, 617 P. 2d 731.(1980); In re Haymer, 115 Ill.App.3d 349, 450 N.E.2d 940.(1983); 10 N.Y.C.R.R. § 400.16; Ala. Code §22-31-1; Alaska Stat. §09.68.120; Ark. Code §20-17-101; Ca. Health & Saf. Code §7180; Colo. Rev. Stat. §12-36-136; Conn. Gen. Stat. §19a-504a; Del. Code. Tit. 24, §1760; Fla. Stat. §765.511; Ga. Code. Ann. §31-10-16; Haw. Rev. Stat. §327C-1; Idaho Code Ann. §54-1819; Ind. Code §1-1-4-3; Iowa Code § 702.8; Kan. Stat. Ann. §77-205; Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. §446.400; La. Stat. Ann. §9:111; Me. Stat. Tit. 22, §2811; Md. Code, Com. Law §5—202; Mass. Gen. Laws Ch. 190B, §1-107; Mich. Comp. Laws §333.1033; Minn. Stat. §145.135; Miss. Code Ann. §41-36-3; Mo. Rev. Stat. §194.005; Mont. Code Ann. §50-22-101; Neb. Rev. Stat. §71-7202; Nev. Rev. Stat. §451.007; N.J. Rev. Stat. §26:6A; N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. §141-D:2; N.M. Stat. §12-2-4; N.C. Gen. Stat. §90-323; N.D. Cent. Code §23-06.3-01; Ohio Rev. Code §2108.40; Okla. Stat. Tit. 63, §3122; Or. Rev. Stat. §112.582; 35 Pa. Cons. Stat. §10203; 23 R. I. Gen. Laws §23-4-26; S.C. Code Ann. §44-43-460; S.D. Codified Laws §34-25-18.1; Tenn. Code Ann. §68-3-501; Tex. HS. Code §671.001; Utah Code §26-34-2; Vt. Stat. Ann. Tit. 18, §5218; Va. Code Ann. §54.1-2972; W. Va. Code § 16-10-01; Wis. Stat. Ann. § 146.71; Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 35-19-101; D. C. Code § 7—601.Google Scholar
Ga. Code. Ann. §31-10-16.Google Scholar
In re Welfare of Bowman, 617 P. 2d 731.(1980); 10 N.Y.C.R.R. § 400.16; Ala. Code §22-31-1; Alaska Stat. §09.68.120; Ariz. Rev. Stat. §14-1107; Ark. Code §20-17-101; Ca. Health & Saf. Code §7180; Colo. Rev. Stat. §12-36-136; Conn. Gen. Stat. §19a-504a; Del. Code. Tit. 24, §1760; Idaho Code Ann. §54-1819; Ind. Code §1-1-4-3; Kan. Stat. Ann. §77-205; Me. Stat. Tit. 22, §2811; Mass. Gen. Laws Ch. 190B, §1-107; Mich. Comp. Laws §333.1033; Miss. Code Ann. §41-36-3; Mont. Code Ann. §50-22-101; Neb. Rev. Stat. §71-7202; Nev. Rev. Stat. §451.007; N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. §141-D:2; N.M. Stat. §12-2-4; N.D. Cent. Code §23-06.3-01; Ohio Rev. Code §2108.40; Okla. Stat. Tit. 63, §3122; Or. Rev. Stat. §112.582; 35 Pa. Cons. Stat. §10203; 23 R. I. Gen. Laws §23-4-26; S.C. Code Ann. §44-43-460; S.D. Codified Laws §34-25-18.1; Tenn. Code Ann. §68-3-501; Utah Code §26-34-2; Vt. Stat. Ann. Tit. 18, §5218; W. Va. Code § 16-10-01; Wis. Stat. Ann. § 146.71; Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 35-19-101; D. C. Code § 7—601.Google Scholar
In re Haymer, 115 Ill.App.3d 349, 450 N.E.2d 940.(1983); Fla. Stat. §765.511; Haw. Rev. Stat. §327C-1; Iowa Code § 702.8; Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. §446.400; La. Stat. Ann. §9:111; Md. Code, Com. Law §5—202; Minn. Stat. §145.135; Mo. Rev. Stat. §194.005; N.J. Rev. Stat. §26:6A; N.C. Gen. Stat. §90-323; Tex. HS. Code §671.001; Va. Code Ann. §54.1-2972.Google Scholar
In re Guardianship of Hailu, 361 P.3d 524.(2015).Google Scholar
See President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research, supra note 7.Google Scholar
See Wijdicks, supra note 1; See “A Definition of Irreversible Coma: Report of the Ad Hoc Committee of the Harvard Medical School to Examine the Definition of Brain Death,” supra note 3.Google Scholar
Powner, D. J., Snyder, J. V., and Grenvik, A., “Brain Death Certification: A Review,” Critical Care Medicine 5, no. 5 (1977): 230-233.Google Scholar
See Wijdicks, supra note 11.Google Scholar
Ding, Z. Y. et al., “A Comparison of Brain Death Criteria between China and the United States,” Chinese Medical Journal (English) 128, no. 21 (2015): 2896-2901.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research, supra note 7; N.J. Rev. Stat. §26:6A.Google Scholar
Burkle, C. M., Schipper, A. M., Wijdicks, E. F. M., “Brain Death and the Courts,” Neurology 76, no. 9 (2011): 837-841.Google Scholar
In re Guardianship of Hailu, 361 P.3d 524.(2015).Google Scholar
Id.; Wijdicks et al., supra note 14.Google Scholar
See Wijdicks et al., supra note 14.Google Scholar
In re Guardianship of Hailu, 361 P.3d 524.(2015).Google Scholar
See “A Definition of Irreversible Coma: Report of the Ad Hoc Committee of the Harvard Medical School to Examine the Definition of Brain Death,” supra note 3.Google Scholar
Beecher, H. K., “Definitions of ‘Life’ and ‘Death’ for Medical Science and Practice,” Annals of the New York Academy of Science 169, no. 2 (1970): 471-474.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Powner, Snyder, and Grenvik, supra note 87; Mohandas, A. and Chou, S. N., “Brain Death: A Clinical and Pathological Study,” Journal of Neurosurgery 35, no. 2 (1971): 211-218.Google Scholar
Wijdicks, E. F. M., “The Case against Confirmatory Tests for Determining Brain Death in Adults,” Neurology 75, no. 1 (2010): 77-83; See “A Definition of Irreversible Coma: Report of the Ad Hoc Committee of the Harvard Medical School to Examine the Definition of Brain Death,” supra note 3.Google Scholar
Id.; see Powner, Snyder, and Grenvik supra note 87.Google Scholar
See. Wijdicks, supra note 100.Google Scholar
See “A definition of irreversible coma. Report of the Ad Hoc Committee of the Harvard Medical School to Examine the Definition of Brain Death,” supra note 3; Wijdicks et al., supra note 14.Google Scholar
In re Guardianship of Hailu, 361 P.3d 524.(2015).Google Scholar
Nev. Rev. Stat. §451.007.Google Scholar
See Wijdicks, supra note 11.Google Scholar
See President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research, supra note 7; see Wijdicks, supra note 11; In re Guardianship of Hailu, 361 P.3d 524.(2015).Google Scholar
See Ding et al., supra note 89.Google Scholar
See President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research, supra note 7; In re Guardianship of Hailu, 361 P.3d 524.(2015).Google Scholar
In re Welfare of Bowman, 617 P. 2d 731.(1980); In re Haymer, 115 Ill.App.3d 349, 450 N.E.2d 940.(1983); 10 N.Y.C.R.R. § 400.16; Ala. Code §22-31-1; Alaska Stat. §09.68.120; Ark. Code §20-17-101; Ariz. Rev. Stat. §14-1107; Ca. Health & Saf. Code §7180; Colo. Rev. Stat. §12-36-136; Conn. Gen. Stat. §19a-504a; Del. Code. Tit. 24, §1760; Fla. Stat. §765.511; Ga. Code. Ann. §31-10-16; Haw. Rev. Stat. §327C-1; Idaho Code Ann. §54-1819; Ind. Code §1-1-4-3; Iowa Code § 702.8; Kan. Stat. Ann. §77-205; Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. §446.400; La. Stat. Ann. §9:111; Me. Stat. Tit. 22, §2811; Md. Code, Com. Law §5—202; Mass. Gen. Laws Ch. 190B, §1-107; Mich. Comp. Laws §333.1033; Minn. Stat. §145.135; Miss. Code Ann. §41-36-3; Mo. Rev. Stat. §194.005; Mont. Code Ann. §50-22-101; Neb. Rev. Stat. §71-7202; Nev. Rev. Stat. §451.007; N.J. Rev. Stat. §26:6A; N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. §141-D:2; N.M. Stat. §12-2-4; N.C. Gen. Stat. §90-323; N.D. Cent. Code §23-06.3-01; Ohio Rev. Code §2108.40; Okla. Stat. Tit. 63, §3122; Or. Rev. Stat. §112.582; 35 Pa. Cons. Stat. §10203; 23 R. I. Gen. Laws §23-4-26; S.C. Code Ann. §44-43-460; S.D. Codified Laws §34-25-18.1; Tenn. Code Ann. §68-3-501; Tex. HS. Code §671.001; Utah Code §26-34-2; Vt. Stat. Ann. Tit. 18, §5218; Va. Code Ann. §54.1-2972; W. Va. Code § 16-10-01; Wis. Stat. Ann. § 146.71; Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 35-19-101; D. C. Code § 7—601.Google Scholar
See Wijdicks et al., supra note 14; In re Guardianship of Hailu, 361 P.3d 524.(2015).Google Scholar
Defining Death: Medical, Legal and Ethical Issues in the Determination of Death.Google Scholar
See Shemie et al., supra note 60.Google Scholar
In re Guardianship of Hailu, 361 P.3d 524.(2015); see Lewis, Varelas, and Greer, supra note 72.Google Scholar
Id. (Lewis et al.).Google Scholar
Ariz. Rev. Stat. §14-1107.Google Scholar
In re Haymer, 115 Ill.App.3d 349, 450 N.E.2d 940.(1983).Google Scholar
Iowa Code § 702.8.Google Scholar
La. Stat. Ann. §9:111.Google Scholar
N.C. Gen. Stat. §90-323.Google Scholar
Tex. HS. Code §671.001.Google Scholar
Fla. Stat. §765.511; N.J. Rev. Stat. §26:6A.Google Scholar
Ga. Code. Ann. §31-10-16.Google Scholar
Haw. Rev. Stat. §327C-1.Google Scholar
In re Haymer, 115 Ill.App.3d 349, 450 N.E.2d 940.(1983); Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. §446.400; Mo. Rev. Stat. §194.005.Google Scholar
Iowa Code § 702.8; Tex. HS. Code §671.001; Md. Code, Com. Law §5—202; Va. Code Ann. §54.1-2972.Google Scholar
La. Stat. Ann. §9:111.Google Scholar
Minn. Stat. §145.135.Google Scholar
N.C. Gen. Stat. §90-323.Google Scholar
Ala. Code §22-31-1.Google Scholar
Alaska Stat. §09.68.120; Alaska Stat. §08.68.700; Alaska Stat. §18.08.089.Google Scholar
Ariz. Rev. Stat. §36-852; Ariz. Rev. Stat. §36-325; Ariz. Rev. Stat. §32-2531.Google Scholar
Ark. Code §20-17-1214; Ark. Code §20-18-601.Google Scholar
Ca. Health & Saf. Code §7181; Ca. Health & Saf. Code §102795.Google Scholar
Colo. Rev. Stat. §12-34-114.Google Scholar
Conn. Gen. Stat. §19a-289m; Conn. Gen. Stat. §20-101a; Conn. Gen. Stat. §Sec. 20-12d; Conn. Gen. Stat. §7-62b.Google Scholar
Del. Code. Tit. 24, §1760; Del. Code. Tit. 24, §1935; Del. Code. Tit. 24, §1902.Google Scholar
D. C. Code §5-1405; D. C. Code §7-211.Google Scholar
Fla. Stat. §382.009.Google Scholar
Ga. Code. Ann. §43-34-25; Ga. Code. Ann. §31-10-16.Google Scholar
Haw. Rev. Stat. §327C-1.Google Scholar
Idaho Code Ann. §39-260.Google Scholar
410 Ill. Comp. Stat. §535/18.Google Scholar
Ind. Code §16-37-1-3.1.Google Scholar
Iowa Code § 144.26; Iowa Code § 702.8.Google Scholar
Kan. Stat. Ann. §65-2412.Google Scholar
Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. §213.076; Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. §446.400; Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. §314.046.Google Scholar
La. Stat. Ann. §9:111.Google Scholar
Me. Stat. Tit. 22, §2842.Google Scholar
Md. Code, Com. Law §4-212.Google Scholar
Mass. Gen. Laws Ch. 46, §9.Google Scholar
Mich. Comp. Laws §333.1033.Google Scholar
Minn. Stat. §525A.14.Google Scholar
Miss. Code Ann. §41-39-127.Google Scholar
Mo. Rev. Stat. §193.145.Google Scholar
Mont. Code Ann. §50-15-403.Google Scholar
Neb. Rev. Stat. §71-605.Google Scholar
Nev. Rev. Stat. §440.380; Nev. Rev. Stat. §440.415.Google Scholar
N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. §5-C:64.Google Scholar
N.J. Rev. Stat. §26:6-89; N.J. Rev. Stat. §26:6-8.1; N.J. Rev. Stat. §26:6A.Google Scholar
N.M. Stat. §24-14-20.Google Scholar
N.Y. U.C.C. Law §4141.Google Scholar
N.C. Gen. Stat. §130A-115; N.C. Gen. Stat. §90-323.Google Scholar
N.D. Cent. Code §23-02.1-19.Google Scholar
Ohio Rev. Code §2108.40; Ohio Rev. Code §4723.36; Ohio Rev. Code §4730.202.Google Scholar
Okla. Stat. Tit. 63, §1-317.Google Scholar
Or. Rev. Stat. §432.133; Or. Rev. Stat. §677.518; Or. Rev. Stat. §678.375.Google Scholar
35 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 450.502.Google Scholar
23 R. I. Gen. Laws §23-3-16.Google Scholar
S.C. Code Ann. §44-63-74.Google Scholar
S.D. Codified Laws §34-25-18.Google Scholar
Tenn. Code Ann. §68-3-502; Tenn. Code Ann. §68-3-511; Tenn. Code Ann. §68-3-512.Google Scholar
Tex. HS. Code §671.001.Google Scholar
Utah Code §26-2-13.Google Scholar
Vt. Stat. Ann. Tit. 18, § 5202.Google Scholar
Va. Code Ann. §32.1-263; Va. Code Ann. §54.1-2972.Google Scholar
70.58.170.Google Scholar
W. Va. Code § 16-5-19.Google Scholar
Wis. Stat. Ann. § 69.18.Google Scholar
Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 35-1-418.Google Scholar