During the year, 173 papers have been published in the 12 monthly parts of volumes 244-246. Since January 1998 the Journal has been published by Cambridge University Press and I hope that all subscribers are happy with the new format. At present there is a nine month period between acceptance and publication of papers.

The numbers of sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus received for study at Monks Wood Research Station increased greatly between 1963 and 1992, then declined by 50% in 1992–97. The long-term increase reflected the national population recovery over this period and followed the reduction in the use of organochlorine pesticides. It was most marked in the eastern parts of Britain where the earlier population decline was greatest. The numbers of kestrels Falco tinnunculus received for study fluctuated greatly from year to year, and showed only a slight net increase over the study period. There was a marked increase in the late 1970s in eastern districts, the only areas where kestrels had obviously declined during the peak years of organochlorine use. The sparrowhawk carcasses revealed two peaks in recorded mortality: August–September, affecting mainly recently independent juveniles; March–April, affecting similar numbers of adults and juveniles. Kestrels showed no obvious seasonal peak in recorded mortality, but fewest carcasses were received in the early breeding season April–May. Among sparrowhawk carcasses, the sex ratio was significantly biased towards females (0.8 male to 1.0 female), but among kestrel carcasses the sex ratio was close to unity. Overall, 64% of sparrowhawks and 69% of kestrels were juvenile (= first year) birds, implying a mean first-year mortality in the two species of 64% and 69%. The proportion of juveniles among sparrowhawk carcasses increased during the study period (probably reflecting improved breeding success), but the proportion of juveniles among kestrel carcasses showed no long-term trend. The most important causes of recorded deaths in both species were collisions (65% for sparrowhawk and 35% for kestrel) and starvation (18% for sparrowhawk and 40% for kestrel). The frequencies of different mortality causes recorded among carcasses found were unlikely to reflect their frequencies in the population at large, but they did reveal changes over time. During 1962–97, deaths attributed to organochlorine poisoning and shooting declined in frequency, while accidental deaths increased in frequency, especially collisions with road vehicles in kestrels and with windows in sparrowhawks.

The tiny honey possum, Tarsipes rostratus, is the only marsupial that feeds solely upon nectar and pollen. Its daily energy expenditure is reduced by occasional short-term deep torpor but its overall nitrogen needs appear to be what would be predicted for its size (7–12 g). Tarsipes derives its nutrients from digesting the contents of pollen grains. Simultaneously, it must eliminate the large volumes of water that accompany the energy-rich sugars in nectar. We suggest that these two time-consuming processes, together with the need to harvest small amounts of nectar and pollen from a large number of flowers, limit the rate at which Tarsipes can raise young. Tarsipes has a small litter (2–4 young) compared with marsupials of similar size and its young grow only slowly, both traits that may stem from dietary constraints. However, it breeds first only 4 months after leaving the pouch and continuously thereafter, which may offset an annual adult mortality rate of 86%. Unusually in a small marsupial, the young are carried in a pouch until almost weaned, rather than deposited in a nest. This too may be a correlate of the way it harvests nutritionally rewarding plant products. Nectar and pollen are available all year from the flowers of a suite of banksias and dryandras that are Tarsipes' favoured foodplants. Only the species-rich Mediterranean-climate heathlands of south-western Australia appear able to support a small marsupial with such extremely specialized dietary habits, whose life-history traits reflect the constraints of this unusual diet.

Activity patterns of greater horseshoe bats Rhinolophus ferrumequinum were investigated at caves in Cheddar (south-west England) during the hibernation season. An ultrasound detector and datalogger were used to monitor and record the number of echolocation calls in a single cave. Activity of R. ferrumequinum remained largely nocturnal throughout winter, and the mean time of activity over 24 h was 88 to 369 min after sunset. There was an increase in diurnal activity from late May to early June, probably because bats remained active after foraging at dawn towards the end of the hibernation season. Visits to the cave did not increase bat activity. Cave air temperature reflected external climatic temperature, although there was variation in cave temperature and its range within and among caves. Individual R. ferrumequinum are usually dispersed in caves in regions where temperature fluctuations correlate with climatic variations in temperature. There was a positive correlation between the number of daily bat passes monitored by the bat detector and datalogger (= daily activity) and cave temperature. Nocturnal activity may be sometimes associated with winter feeding. Neither date nor barometric pressure had a significant effect on daily activity. Activity patterns largely reflected the findings from individual R. ferrumequinum studied by telemetry (Park, 1998), in that bat activity increased with cave and climatic temperatures, and the temporal pattern of activity remained consistently nocturnal throughout winter, starting at dusk.

Redbelly snakes Storeria occipitomaculata have a characteristic agonistic display involving conspicuous lip-curling and head distortion. The lip-curling and head distortion display is similar to head shape-changes during feeding. Storeria occipitomaculata produced mouth secretions while displaying. Micrographs of maxillae and observation of changes in head configuration showed that the lip-curling behaviour of S. occipitomaculata is related to the presence of carina-bearing maxillary teeth, which are protruded from the mouth during the display. I compared the behaviour and morphology of this species to other gastropod-eating snakes and suggest that these behavioural and morphological characteristics have a two-fold role: in prey capture they aid the capture, the handling, and perhaps the digestion of prey; in predator deterrence they may act as delivery agents for mouth secretions.

Otter spraints from five Danish freshwater localities were analysed. In all localities fish was the main prey (76–99% of estimated bulk), especially in winter. Depending on locality, the prey fish mainly consisted of cyprinids (Cyprinidae), percids (Percidae) or salmonids (Salmonidae). Seasonal variations were found in the diet corresponding to the availability of prey. Non-fish prey categories, such as frogs, birds, mammals and invertebrates, were most frequently taken in spring and summer, but only frogs made an important contribution to the diet (0–21%). The results of analysing 978 otter spraints were compared with prey fish populations as estimated by electrofishing. It was concluded that the fish species composition in the otter diet generally reflected that of the foraging area, however, with the exception of a negative preference for trout (Salmo sp.) and a preference for sticklebacks (Gasterosteidae) in some of the study areas. Otters generally took all available sizes of fish with a tendency for selecting individuals between 9–21 cm, though the preferred size of eels was 18–36 cm. A principal component analysis showed that the variation in diet between the localities was associated with differences in fish communities between free-flowing rivers and lake outflows.

It is now well recognized that terrestrial mammals can maintain equivalent bone stresses despite dramatic differences in body size through the adoption of extended limb positions during locomotion. However, this dynamic solution is not available to all mammals. Medium- and large-bodied arboreal mammals, such as anthropoid primates, must maintain relatively gracile and mobile limbs in order to manoeuvre in a discontinuous arboreal environment. But they must also use flexed (i.e. crouched) limb positions in order to maintain balance on arboreal substrates, thus subjecting their gracile limbs to relatively high loads. To determine how primates resolve this conflict between their kinematics and their morphology, five species of Old World monkeys were videotaped with lateral, frontal, and overhead cameras while they walked at a range of natural speeds along a runway and raised horizontal poles instrumented with a force platform. Kinematic and kinetic data on the forelimb show that during arboreal quadrupedalism, Old World monkeys do crouch when travelling on arboreal supports compared to the ground. Simultaneously, they lower vertical peak reaction forces and thereby reduce and reorient the peak resultant substrate reaction force, so that moment arms and moments are roughly equivalent on poles and the ground. This is accomplished through the adoption of a compliant walking gait characterized by high degrees of forelimb protraction, substantial elbow yield, low vertical oscillations of the body, and long contact times. The use of a compliant walking gait appears to be extremely rare among mammals and is most likely related to an initial primate adaptation to quadrupedal locomotion on terminal branches. This gait represents a previously unrecognized dynamic postural mechanism for maintenance of similar bone stresses and safety factors in both arboreal and terrestrial environments.

Recent faecal analyses have shown that barbastelle bats Barbastella barbastellus are highly specialized moth predators. The predominance of moths (> 99% by volume) in their diet both in wooded areas of the Swiss Alps and in denuded steppe areas of Central Asia further suggests that this narrow diet does not stem from a highly specialized habitat selection, but merely from peculiar species-specific foraging constraints. Non-opportunistic predators relying on a few prey types must find areas providing their basic prey in abundance. Using radiotracking, habitat selection was investigated in a population of barbastelle bats inhabiting xeric forests in the Swiss Alps. In particular, I tested the prediction that the biologically most productive areas within the forest are exploited in priority. Eleven individuals were radiotracked from June through to October 1992, and in June 1993. The home range (59 ha) of the overall radiotracked population was divided in 236 cell units of 0.25 ha each. Within each cell, habitat and vegetation structure was described using 19 environmental variables. Habitat selection by the bats was investigated through stepwise regression analysis, which retained 11 variables showing a significant positive relationship with habitat use. The four variables accounting for 31% of the overall variance were: litter thickness, percentage of shrub layer cover, percentage of pine tree cover, and circumference of oak trunks. The results showed a clear preference by barbastelles bats for richly structured forests, and an avoidance of open woodland on stony outcrops and rocky slopes. This confirms that the biologically most productive parts of the forest were exploited in priority.

The crude protein content, water content and in vitro digestibility of grasses in the diet of the Arabian oryx Oryx leucoryx were investigated. In the main food species, Stipagrostis spp., levels of crude protein, water content and digestibility were generally highest in the flower component while in other species, leaf was the best quality food. Crude protein content, water content and digestibility were highly correlated and all declined exponentially following rainfall. Levels remained comparatively high, even during extended drought, largely because fog and dew-fall enabled some plants to continue to produce green leaf material. The crude protein content of rumen material from oryx that died during drought was negatively correlated with time since rainfall. Estimates of dietary crude protein derived from the protein content of rumen material were comparable to those predicted for available grass forage. The results are discussed in the context of the food and water requirements of oryx. It is suggested that during drought some grasses continue to be a source of adequate crude protein and water and of sufficient digestibility but that levels are close to minimum maintenance requirements. This and the decreasing biomass of available forage of sufficient quality lead to condition loss and death, particularly of the most vulnerable animals. Crude protein may become limiting sooner than does water.

The fat sand rat Psammomys obesus is the main reservoir host of cutaneous leishmaniasis in North Africa and western Asia. In order to understand better the transmission of this disease to humans, a longitudinal study of a population of the rodent was carried out in Tunisia. Rodents were collected in 10 trapping sessions between May 1995 and January 1997, using mole traps and cage traps. The structure of the population was established from eye lens weights and the reproductive state was determined on dissection. Reproduction took place continuously from autumn 1995 to spring 1996 with sexual activity rates from 60–65% in females and 23–100% in males. The mean litter size rose from 3.6 in September to 6.1 in March. Reproduction ceased completely in the summer of 1996, and did not start again till January 1997, following an apparent failure in the autumn. Animals born early in the breeding season bred at an early age, but those born later delayed breeding till the following season. At most times the population clearly consisted of two cohorts, one born in the most recent breeding season, and one born in the preceding one. In response to the reproductive cycle, population numbers showed an increase in winter and a decline in summer. The peak observed in March 1996 was due to the sexual activity of multiparous females and young breeding females. At this time there was a female bias in the sex ratio. In a winter dry period, favourable habitat for breeding was confined to an area in which several species of Chenopodiaceae were associated. Sexual activity in females was clearly correlated with rainfall and rain days, with a 1 month delay (r = 0.78; P = 0.007). Male sexual activity was independent of weather conditions. This result is comparable with other rodents of Sahelian or tropical conditions. The increase in fertility was unrelated to age and is discussed in the light of food availability as a proximate factor. The persistence of the parasite causing cutaneous leishmaniasis in host populations is discussed.

The effects of breeding season and reproductive status on female reproduction were investigated in the common mole-rat, Cryptomys hottentotus hottentotus, a co-operatively breeding rodent that exhibits seasonal breeding and a reproductive division of labour. Body mass, reproductive tract morphometrics, ovarian histology and plasma testosterone concentrations were studied in 80 females from 42 wild-caught colonies. Although the birth of offspring is restricted to the summer, qualitative analysis of ovarian histology revealed that females retained reproductive function during the winter non-breeding period. Seasonal differences were found in ovarian morphometrics and testosterone concentrations and are probably associated with the occurrence of pregnancy in reproductive females during the breeding period. The continuance of reproductive function during the non-breeding period in female common mole-rats parallels the situation in males, and is believed to be important in dispersal in C. h. hottentotus. The non-breeding period coincides with the period of maximal dispersal opportunities in the winter rainfall areas inhabited by the common mole-rat. Reproductive activation in dispersing animals may aid intersexual recognition, assist pair-bond formation and thereby facilitate independent reproduction. Reproductive and non-reproductive females exhibited a similar degree of reproductive function, and as for season, the only clear-cut status-related differences were associated with the occurrence of pregnancy in reproductive females. This absence of a physiologically well-defined suppression of reproduction in female common mole-rats is similar to the situation in males. Incest taboos between philopatric siblings may negate the need for a rigorous suppression of reproduction in subordinate colony members of this obligate outbreeder.

The composition of egg yolks and neonates of the viviparous lizard, Pseudemoia pagenstecheri, one of the most placentotrophic reptiles studied to date, are described. Neonates (43.3 ± 5.2 mg) have twice the dry mass of the initial eggs (22.0 ± 1.9 mg). The protein content of neonates (29.1 ± 1.1 mg) is more than twice that of eggs (12.2 ± 1.1 mg), while the energy content (908.1 ± 107.4 J) is 1.6 times higher than that of the egg (565.0 ± 42.9 J). The energy densities of eggs (27.5 kJ g−1) and neonates (23.1 ± 0.3 kJ g−1) are similar to the energy densities of eggs and neonates of oviparous species. The total ash per neonate (4.1 ± 0.4 mg) is three times greater than that of the egg contents (1.4 ± 0.2). Neonates contain significantly more calcium, sodium and potassium, but not magnesium, than do eggs. Thus, the placenta has a quantitatively important role in supplying nutrients for the embryo. The proportions of triacylglycerol (66%), phospholipid (19%), and free cholesterol (5%) in the eggs are similar to those in eggs of birds and crocodilians, but the proportion of cholesteryl esters (7%) is much higher in eggs of P. pagenstecheri. The proportion of docosahexaenoic acid in the egg phospholipid is relatively low (1.4%) but rises to 5.4% in the neonate. The eggs contain vitamin E (mainly in the form of α-tocopherol) and vitamin A, but no detectable carotenoids. The overall composition of the eggs is not substantially different from that of oviparous species, suggesting that the small egg size relative to neonate size is a result of a reduction in egg size rather than modification by omission of some nutrients from the yolk. The pattern of placental nutrient provision of P. pagenstecheri contains both an obligate and a facultative component suggesting that enhancement of offspring quality through facultative placentotrophy is a general characteristic of placental reptiles independent of pattern of embryonic nutrient provision.

The ultrastructure of specialized sternal gland hairs from the brown antechinus Antechinus stuartii was studied using a scanning electron microscope. The centre of the sternal gland of male A. stuartii possesses short and stiff hairs that are capable of holding a large mass of lipids. The morphology of these hairs differs from those of the dorsal region of the same individual and sexual dimorphism is observed. The osmetrichia of the sternal gland region of male A. stuartii have flared and thickly packed cuticular scales. These scales differ morphologically from the large flattened conical scales of hair from the female sternal region and male dorsum. The surface of the osmetrichia is soaked with the red, oily secretion of the sternal gland, and the angled scales of the cortex have been modified into special ridged chambers which store the glandular secretions. We suggest that in A. stuartii the unique cuticular structural modifications may serve in the retention and delayed oxidation of olfactory cues at the time of breeding.

Survival of juvenile Weddell seals Leptonychotes weddellii in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica was examined using 25 years of tagging and resighting data. Using mark–recapture models, we estimated age- and sex-specific apparent survival (survival confounded with emigration) rates of Weddell seals from birth to 6 years of age for 17 cohorts (1973–89). Survival in the first 2 years of life (0.429 and 0.635 for the first and second years, respectively) was lower than annual survival after 2 years of age (0.806), and was significantly lower for males than for females. First-year survival of the 1978 and 1983 cohorts was significantly lower than average first-year survival across cohorts. Reproductive rate of adult females was significantly correlated with first-year survival in concurrent years, but not when first-year survival lagged reproductive rate by 1 year nor with annual survival after 1 year of age. This correlation, however, was only significant in male first-year survival, possibly indicating that survival of males is more dependent on maternal or environmental conditions than survival of females. Average weaning mass varied significantly among cohorts and was nearly correlated to reproductive rate of adult females. This may indicate that maternal condition is reduced in years of low reproduction although more data are needed to test this conclusively.

This paper examines the distribution of non-offspring nursing or ‘allosuckling’ in warthogs Phacochoerus africanus. Of the 16 breeding groups studied, 11 contained two or more nursing females. Allosuckling occurred in six of these groups (55%). The number of juveniles per nursing female was lower for groups with allosuckling, although juvenile mortality was not measurably affected by either allosuckling, group size or the number of females in a group. Time spent drinking was longer for juveniles in smaller litters but was not influenced by allosuckling or juvenile age. Longer intervals between the females' nursing bouts resulted in longer drinking bouts for the juveniles, but there was no correlation with inter-meal intervals. The proportion of successful sucking bouts increased with juvenile age. This success rate was greater in groups without allosuckling, suggesting a better co-ordination between mother and offspring. Females appeared able to distinguish between juveniles and to nurse selectively. Four- to 5-year-old females nursed fewer juveniles than did older or younger females in their groups and were thus less likely to be donors.

Head triangulation is a regular component of the defensive behaviour of both Heterodon and Dasypeltis. In Heterodon platyrhinos, the triangulation is achieved primarily through rotation of the quadrate in the transverse plane with the distal end of the quadrate moving dorsad. The quadrate is pulled by the m. cervicomandibularis acting in conjunction with one of the jaw adductors. Head triangulation in Dasypeltis scabra is produced by rotation of the quadrate mainly in the frontal plane with the distal end of the quadrate moving craniad. Experimental analysis documents that contraction of the m. adductor mandibulae externus superficialis is temporally linked to this displacement of the quadrate. The presence of two different mechanical bases for head triangulation in these distantly related colubrids suggests that this behavioural display has evolved independently in these ophidian lineages.

This study explores the relationship between body mass and femoral construction in armoured (dasypodids and manids) and unarmoured (caviomorph rodents) mammals. Predictive equations based on diaphyseal cross-sectional parameters provided the most accurate estimates of body mass in caviomorph rodents and dasypodids. When these equations are applied to the estimation of body mass in manids, relatively low predictive errors (<20%) are found only when caviomorph equations derived with diaphyseal cross-sectional area or moments of area are used. Dasypodid equations generally yield less accurate estimates for manids, so that armouring of the integument alone poorly discriminates femoral types. Other factors with potential to differentially impact femoral construction are also considered: although locomotor speed strongly influences mass–structure relationships within caviomorph rodents, the confounding influence of locomotor posture, fossoriality, and arboreality render these relationships less predictable across all three groups considered here. Limb structure and, hence, scaling patterns of each phylogenetic group are influenced by a unique mosaic of factors that is difficult to summarize quantitatively. The results of the study provide cautions as well as encouragements for the estimation of body mass for fossil species that have no adaptively similar living relatives.

This study investigated the reproductive biology of a captive population of brush-tailed phascogales Phascogale tapoatafa. A ‘round robin’ mating system was established in which seven adult male animals were rotated through seven adult females. Changes in vaginal cytology and peripheral plasma progesterone and oestradiol levels were monitored to determine features of the female reproductive cycle. Regular measurement of scrotal diameter, collection of testicular biopsies and monitoring of plasma testosterone levels was used to assess male reproductive activity. Oestrous cycle length was estimated as 40 ± 5 days (n = 7) and gestation length as 27 ± 5 days (n = 7). Plasma progesterone levels showed no significant variation. This negative result is attributed to the small sample size (n = 4). Plasma oestradiol levels however, followed the predicted pattern, with an increase in peripheral concentration occurring prior to the breeding season. Oestradiol concentration peaked at 246.9 ± 169.2 pg ml−1 (mean ± SE) just before mating and declined to 24.3 ± 12.0 pg ml−1 after mating. Histological studies of testicular biopsies revealed that spermatogenesis does not cease until after the breeding season has begun, in contrast to Antechinus species, in which spermatogenesis ceases before breeding. Plasma testosterone levels increased at the onset of the breeding season, peaking at 6.3 ± 0.60 ng ml−1. Testosterone concentrations remained high until approximately 3 weeks after breeding, followed by a decline to pre-breeding levels. Litter size and sex ratio did not vary significantly between first- and second-year females. Females did not undergo a second oestrous cycle when pouch young were removed 15 and 17 days after parturition.

At least 60 bird species possess an elongated trachea that typically forms loops or coils within the sternum or thorax. This peculiar trait has been known for centuries, and a wide variety of hypotheses have been proposed for its function. However, none of these hypotheses adequately accounts for its existence in all of the diverse bird species and habitats in which it is found. In this paper it is proposed that tracheal elongation serves to exaggerate the apparent size of a vocalizing bird. In normal birds, trachea length is correlated with body size, and thus the acoustic correlates of trachea length in bird calls could convey information about size. By manipulating such an acoustic cue (formant frequency dispersion), tracheal elongation allows a caller to duplicate sounds produced by a larger bird. Unlike previously-proposed hypotheses, this ‘size exaggeration’ hypothesis is found to be consistent with current theories of avian vocal production and a wide range of comparative ecological and behavioural data. A number of new predictions of the hypothesis are found to be upheld. Finally, tracheal elongation is considered as a possible example of ‘sensory exploitation’, and its ultimate functional significance in mate choice and/or territoriality is discussed.

The diet of tawny owls Strix aluco was determined from pellets and prey items in owl nests in Kielder Forest, a planted spruce forest in northern England. Field voles Microtus agrestis were their most important food, and formed the highest proportion of tawny owl diet in winter and early spring. Common shrews Sorex araneus, common frogs Rana temporaria and birds were taken more frequently in late spring and summer. Clear cuts, areas from which timber had been felled at the end of the rotation, provided the main field vole habitat in the forest and remained suitable for voles for 10–15 years after re-planting. Field vole abundance was measured three times a year on numerous clear cuts throughout the study area using a vole sign index based on fresh grass clippings in runways. Tawny owls responded functionally to the 3 to 4-year cycles of field vole abundance. In years when voles were scarce, adult owls took more common shrews and common frogs, as determined from pellet analysis. In contrast, more bird prey was fed to nestlings when field voles were scarce, as determined from prey items in nests. The proportions of the main prey in nests changed over a 19-year period. More bank voles Clethrionomys glareolus and wood mice Apodemus sylvaticus occurred in every year after 1992 than in any year before this. Numbers of wood mice in owl nests increased significantly throughout the study period, whereas bank vole numbers exhibited non-cyclic, multi-annual fluctuations that were unrelated to field vole cycles. It is argued that fluctuations in rodent prey reflected changes in rodent guilds in the study area; reasons for this are discussed. This is the first study of tawny owl diet in spruce forests in Britain and highlights the value of such large-scale dynamic habitats for rodent populations and their predators.