Albert Einstein encapsulated a commonly held view within the scientific community when he wrote in his book Out of My Later Years (Einstein 1950, page 54)

Quasi-interpretations are a technique for guaranteeing complexity bounds on first-order functional programs: in particular, with termination orderings, they give a sufficient condition for a program to be executable in polynomial time (Marion and Moyen 2000), which we call the P-criterion here. We study properties of the programs satisfying the P-criterion in order to improve the understanding of its intensional expressive power. Given a program, its blind abstraction is the non-deterministic program obtained by replacing all constructors with the same arity by a single one. A program is blindly polytime if its blind abstraction terminates in polynomial time. We show that all programs satisfying a variant of the P-criterion are in fact blindly polytime. Then we give two extensions of the P-criterion: one relaxing the termination ordering condition and the other (the bounded-value property) giving a necessary and sufficient condition for a program to be polynomial time executable, with memoisation.

The problem of the commutativity of algebraic (categorical) diagrams has attracted the attention of researchers for a long time. For example, the related notion of coherence was discussed in Mac Lane's homology book Mac Lane (1963), see also his AMS presidential address Mac Lane (1976). Researchers in category theory view this problem from a specific angle, and for them it is not just a question of convenient notation, though it is worth mentioning the important role that notation plays in the development of science (take, for example, the progress made after the introduction of symbolic notation in logics or matrix notation in algebra). In 1976, Peter Freyd published the paper ‘Properties Invariant within Equivalence Types of Categories’ (Freyd 1976), where the central role is played by the notion of a ‘diagrammatic property’. We may also recall the process of ‘diagram chasing’, and its applications in topology and algebra. But before we can use diagrams (and the principal property of a diagram is its commutativity), it is vital for us to be able to check whether a diagram is commutative.

We give a logic-independent semantics for predefined (data) types within the categorical abstract model theoretic framework of the theory of institutions. We develop a generic interpolation result for this semantics, which can be easily applied to various concrete situations from the theory and practice of specification and programming. Our study of interpolation is motivated by a number of important applications to computing science, especially in the area of structured specifications.

We investigate several geometric models of networks that simultaneously have some nice global properties, including the small-diameter property, the small-community phenomenon, which is defined to capture the common experience that (almost) everyone in society also belongs to some meaningful small communities, and the power law degree distribution, for which our result significantly strengthens those given in van den Esker (2008) and Jordan (2010). These results, together with our previous work in Li and Peng (2011), build a mathematical foundation for the study of both communities and the small-community phenomenon in various networks.

In the proof of the power law degree distribution, we develop the method of alternating concentration analysis to build a concentration inequality by alternately and iteratively applying both the sub- and super-martingale inequalities, which seems to be a powerful technique with further potential applications.

This special issue of Mathematical Structures in Computer Science contains a selection of papers presented at three satellite events of CONCUR'09, which was held between 31 August and 5 September 2009 in Bologna (Italy). Specifically, it contains three papers from the 16th International Workshop on Expressiveness in Concurrency (EXPRESS'09), one paper from the 2nd Interaction and Concurrency Experience (ICE'09) and two papers from the 6th Workshop on Structural Operational Semantics (SOS'09).

In this paper we propose a novel approach for analysing proof nets of Multiplicative Linear Logic (MLL) using coding theory. We define families of proof structures called PS-families and introduce a metric space for each family. In each family:

1. (1) an MLL proof net is a true code element; and

2. (2) a proof structure that is not an MLL proof net is a false (or corrupted) code element.

This is the second instalment in the project initiated in Manin (2012). In the first Part, we argued that both the philosophy and technique of perturbative renormalisation in quantum field theory could be meaningfully transplanted to the theory of computation, and sketched several contexts supporting this view.

In this second part, we address some of the issues raised in Manin (2012) and develop them further in three contexts: a categorification of the algorithmic computations; time cut-off and anytime algorithms; and, finally, a Hopf algebra renormalisation of the Halting Problem.

This paper reports on an investigation into the role of shuffling and concatenation in the theory of graph drawing. A simple syntactic description of these and related operations is proved to be complete in the context of finite partial orders, and as general as possible. An explanation based on this result is given for a previously investigated collapse of the permutohedron into the associahedron, and for collapses into other less familiar polyhedra, including the cyclohedron. Such polyhedra have been considered recently in connection with the notion of tubing, which is closely related to tree-like finite partial orders, which are defined simply here and investigated in detail. Like the associahedron, some of these other polyhedra are involved in categorial coherence questions, which will be treated elsewhere.

The concurrency theory literature offers a wealth of examples of characteristic-formula constructions for various behavioural relations over finite labelled transition systems and Kripke structures that are defined in terms of fixed points of suitable functions. Such constructions and their proofs of correctness have been developed independently, but have a common underlying structure. This paper provides a general view of characteristic formulae that are expressed in terms of logics that have a facility for the recursive definition of formulae. We show how several examples of characteristic-formula constructions in the literature can be recovered as instances of the proposed general framework, and how the framework can be used to yield novel constructions. The paper also offers general results pertaining to the definition of co-characteristic formulae and of characteristic formulae expressed in terms of infinitary modal logics.

This paper extends the ‘lens’ concept for view updating in Computer Science beyond the categories of sets and ordered sets. It is first shown that a constant complement view updating strategy also corresponds to a lens for a categorical database model. A variation on the lens concept called a c-lens is introduced, and shown to correspond to the categorical notion of Grothendieck opfibration. This variant guarantees a universal solution to the view update problem for functorial update processes.

We introduce a novel formalism of label-structured modal transition systems that combines the classical may/must modalities on transitions with structured labels that represent quantitative aspects of the model. On the one hand, the specification formalism is general enough to include models like weighted modal transition systems and allows system developers to employ more complex label refinement than in previously studied theories. On the other hand, the formalism maintains the desirable properties required by any specification theory supporting compositional reasoning. In particular, we study modal and thorough refinement, determinisation, parallel composition, conjunction, quotient and logical characterisation of label-structured modal transition systems.

The differential λ-calculus is a paradigmatic functional programming language endowed with a syntactical differentiation operator that allows the application of a program to an argument in a linear way. One of the main features of this language is that it is resource conscious and gives the programmer suitable primitives to handle explicitly the resources used by a program during its execution. The differential operator also allows us to write the full Taylor expansion of a program. Through this expansion, every program can be decomposed into an infinite sum (representing non-deterministic choice) of ‘simpler’ programs that are strictly linear.

The aim of this paper is to develop an abstract ‘model theory’ for the untyped differential λ-calculus. In particular, we investigate what form a general categorical definition of a denotational model for this calculus should take. Starting from the work of Blute, Cockett and Seely on differential categories, we develop the notion of a Cartesian closed differential category and prove that linear reflexive objects living in such categories constitute sound and complete models of the untyped differential λ-calculus. We also give sufficient conditions for Cartesian closed differential categories to model the Taylor expansion. This requires that every model living in such categories equates all programs having the same full Taylor expansion.

We then provide a concrete example of a Cartesian closed differential category modelling the Taylor expansion, namely the category MRel of sets and relations from finite multisets to sets. We prove that the extensional model of λ-calculus we have recently built in MRel is linear, and is thus also an extensional model of the untyped differential λ-calculus. In the same category, we build a non-extensional model and prove that it is, nevertheless, extensional on its differential part.

Finally, we study the relationship between the differential λ-calculus and the resource calculus, which is a functional programming language combining the ideas behind the differential λ-calculus with those behind Boudol's λ-calculus with multiplicities. We define two translation maps between these two calculi and study the properties of these translations. In particular, this analysis shows that the two calculi share the same notion of a model, and thus that the resource calculus can be interpreted by translation into every linear reflexive object living in a Cartesian closed differential category.

We extend the theory of labelled Markov processes to include internal non-determinism, which is a fundamental concept for the further development of a process theory with abstraction on non-deterministic continuous probabilistic systems. We define non-deterministic labelled Markov processes (NLMP) and provide three definitions of bisimulations: a bisimulation following a traditional characterisation; a state-based bisimulation tailored to our ‘measurable’ non-determinism; and an event-based bisimulation. We show the relations between them, including the fact that the largest state bisimulation is also an event bisimulation. We also introduce a variation of the Hennessy–Milner logic that characterises event bisimulation and is sound with respect to the other bisimulations for an arbitrary NLMP. This logic, however, is infinitary as it contains a denumerable . We then introduce a finitary sublogic that characterises all bisimulations for an image finite NLMP whose underlying measure space is also analytic. Hence, in this setting, all the notions of bisimulation we consider turn out to be equal. Finally, we show that all these bisimulation notions are different in the general case. The counterexamples that separate them turn out to be non-probabilistic NLMPs.

We study bialgebras and Hopf algebras in the compact closed category Rel of sets and binary relations. Various monoidal categories with extra structure arise as the categories of (co)modules of bialgebras and Hopf algebras in Rel. In particular, for any group G, we derive a ribbon category of crossed G-sets as the category of modules of a Hopf algebra in Rel that is obtained by the quantum double construction. This category of crossed G-sets serves as a model of the braided variant of propositional linear logic.

The statistical mechanical interpretation of algorithmic information theory (AIT for short) was introduced and developed in our previous papers Tadaki (2008; 2012), where we introduced into AIT the notion of thermodynamic quantities, such as the partition function Z(T), free energy F(T), energy E(T) and statistical mechanical entropy S(T). We then discovered that in the interpretation, the temperature T is equal to the partial randomness of the values of all these thermodynamic quantities, where the notion of partial randomness is a stronger representation of the compression rate by means of program-size complexity. Furthermore, we showed that this situation holds for the temperature itself as a thermodynamic quantity, namely, for each of the thermodynamic quantities above, the computability of its value at temperature T gives a sufficient condition for T ∈ (0, 1) to be a fixed point on partial randomness. In this paper, we develop the statistical mechanical interpretation of AIT further and pursue its formal correspondence to normal statistical mechanics. The thermodynamic quantities in AIT are defined on the basis of the halting set of an optimal prefix-free machine, which is a universal decoding algorithm used to define the notion of program-size complexity. We show that there are infinitely many optimal prefix-free machines that give completely different sufficient conditions for each of the thermodynamic quantities in AIT. We do this by introducing the notion of composition of prefix-free machines into AIT, which corresponds to the notion of the composition of systems in normal statistical mechanics.

We introduce homotopical methods based on rewriting on higher-dimensional categories to prove coherence results in categories with an algebraic structure. We express the coherence problem for (symmetric) monoidal categories as an asphericity problem for a track category and use rewriting methods on polygraphs to solve it. The setting is extended to more general coherence problems, viewed as 3-dimensional word problems in a track category, including the case of braided monoidal categories.

We prove a compactness theorem in the context of Hennessy–Milner logic and use it to derive a sufficient condition on modal characterisations for the approximation induction principle to be sound modulo the corresponding process equivalence. We show that this condition is necessary when the equivalence in question is compositional with respect to the projection operators. Furthermore, we derive different upper bounds for the constructive version of the approximation induction principle with respect to simulation and decorated trace semantics.

We propose an alternative approach, based on diagram rewriting, for computations in bialgebras. We illustrate this graphical syntax by proving some properties of co-operations, including coassociativity and cocommutativity. This amounts to checking the confluence of some rewriting systems.

Algorithmic entropy can be viewed as a special case of the entropy studied in statistical mechanics. This viewpoint allows us to apply many techniques developed for use in thermodynamics to the subject of algorithmic information theory. In particular, suppose we fix a universal prefix-free Turing machine and let X be the set of programs that halt for this machine. Then we can regard X as a set of ‘microstates’, and treat any function on X as an ‘observable’. For any collection of observables, we can study the Gibbs ensemble that maximises entropy subject to constraints on the expected values of these observables. We illustrate this by taking the log runtime, length and output of a program as observables analogous to the energy E, volume V and number of molecules N in a container of gas. The conjugate variables of these observables allow us to define quantities we call the ‘algorithmic temperature’ T, ‘algorithmic pressure’ P and ‘algorithmic potential’ μ, since they are analogous to the temperature, pressure and chemical potential. We derive an analogue of the fundamental thermodynamic relation dE = TdS − PdV + μdN, and use it to study thermodynamic cycles analogous to those for heat engines. We also investigate the values of T, P and μ for which the partition function converges. At some points on the boundary of this domain of convergence, the partition function becomes uncomputable – indeed, at these points the partition function itself has non-trivial algorithmic entropy.