The term ‘field propagation and release’ refers to the breeding of captive adults in large field enclosures, allowing them to raise their young, and then releasing those young from that location. This technique is currently being implemented in Canada as one of several recovery tools for the endangered eastern loggerhead shrike Lanius ludovicianus migrans. During 2001–2007 a total of 360 shrike fledglings were produced in field propagation enclosures and 301 were released from these enclosures. Annual return rates of birds released since 2004 are 2–6.6%. Seventeen released birds have been re-sighted, including 10 birds that have returned to the breeding grounds the following season to produce young with wild mates. The high annual return rate of release birds and the successful integration of these birds into the wild breeding population represent important milestones for the recovery of this population. The management technique we describe here has the potential to be applicable to other species that require natural habitat for breeding and/or are reliant on a suite of parent-learned behaviours that cannot be accommodated for or adequately replicated within intensive close captive-breeding or hand-rearing conditions.

Poaching for bushmeat is a major problem for conservation of wildlife populations in many parts of Africa, including the Serengeti ecosystem in Tanzania. However, the severity of the poaching problem is often unclear because of a lack of accurate data. Directly asking people to self-report illegal activity faces the obvious problem of under-reporting. Use of arrest records from anti-poaching patrols may reflect levels of poaching activity but could also be driven by funding and quality of anti-poaching efforts. A third method, assessing poaching by asking about bushmeat consumption, is indirect, possibly subject to under-reporting, and also subject to limits on the accuracy of memory of respondents. We compare rates of poaching derived by self-assessment of poaching activities (based on household interviews), dietary recall of bushmeat consumption over a variety of time frames, and arrest records from anti-poaching units. We apply these three methods to assess poaching activities in three villages bordering protected areas on the western boundary of Serengeti National Park. Our results showed that dietary recall of bushmeat consumption and arrest records indicated similar patterns of poaching across the three villages but self-reporting differed significantly. There appear to be significant advantages to coupling results from dietary recall of bushmeat consumption and arrest records to estimate the level of poaching activity. In situations where reliable data from anti-poaching units are unavailable, cost-effective data collection of bushmeat consumption will provide a viable alternative to assess levels of poaching involvement of villages that border protected areas.

Human–wildlife conflicts are common across Africa. In Mozambique, official records show that wildlife killed 265 people during 27 months (July 2006 to September 2008). Crocodile Crocodylus niloticus, lion Panthera leo, elephant Loxodonta africana and hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius caused most deaths but crocodiles were responsible for 66%. Crocodile attacks occurred across Mozambique but 53% of deaths occurred in districts bordering Lake Cabora Bassa and the Zambezi River. Hippopotamus attacks were also concentrated here. Lion attacks occurred mainly in northern Mozambique and, while people were attacked by elephants across the country, 67% of deaths occurred in northern Mozambique. Attacks by lions, elephants or hippopotamuses were relatively rare but additional data will probably show that attacks by these species are more widespread than the preliminary records suggest. Buffalo Syncerus caffer, hyaena Crocuta crocuta and leopard Panthera pardus were minor conflict species. Good land-use planning, a long-term solution to many conflicts, is particularly relevant in Mozambique, where the crocodile and hippopotamus populations of protected areas are often in rivers that border these areas, and cause conflicts outside them, and where people commonly live within protected areas. Poverty may prompt fishermen to risk crocodile attack by entering rivers or lakes. The high incidence of conflicts near Limpopo and South Africa’s Kruger National Parks (both within the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area) highlights the problems created for people by facilitating the unrestricted movement of wildlife between protected areas across their land.

In a case study of conservation planning by a conservation organization working at a continental scale we examine how WWF identified and prioritized its African elephant Loxodonta africana conservation activities. We (1) review lessons learnt from previous work, (2) identify priority landscapes using biological criteria (e.g. population size and viability) and institutional criteria (e.g. feasibility, sustainability and cost-effectiveness of WWF interventions), and (3) conduct a threat analysis and review of national and subregional action plans. We suggest that species action plans should use priority-setting criteria that focus on conserving the largest and most viable populations at the subspecies level. Clear definition of geographical priorities helps an organization focus its resources and assists monitoring. Species action plans should also take account of plans developed by governments and other stakeholders. Conservation agencies wishing to select which landscapes to invest in for a given species or subspecies could then consider institutional prioritization criteria, such as those used by WWF for the African elephant. This would allow them to invest pragmatically in conservation that has a higher chance of success than work planned solely through scientific analysis. Ultimately, however, no species action plan will succeed unless it has the resources necessary for implementation and the key stakeholders work together in partnership.

We studied the demography of a subpopulation of African elephants Loxodonta africana in Tarangire National Park, Tanzania, from 1993 to 2005. The Tarangire elephants had been affected by heavy poaching prior to 1993. We monitored 668 individually known elephants in 27 family groups. The population increased from 226 to 498 individuals, with mean group size increasing from 8.4 to 18.3. The average annual growth rate was 7.1% (range 2.0–16.9%). This approaches the maximal growth rate for African elephants, with corresponding minimal values for demographic parameters. The mean interbirth interval was 3.3 years, mean age of first reproduction 11.1 years, average annual mortality of elephants younger than 8 years 3%, and average annual mortality of adult females 1%. Probability of conceiving was positively correlated with annual rainfall. No significant density-dependent effects were recorded. Rapid growth was aided by high rainfall, low population density and release from the stresses of poaching. These results demonstrate that elephant populations are capable of rapid population increases for extended periods of time given the right ecological and social conditions. This has consequences for elephant conservation and management.

Terrestrial and freshwater molluscs are amongst the most threatened of all taxa, yet data exist on the distribution and status of only a small proportion of the species. Here we present the results of the first systematic survey of a terrestrial mollusc on the island of Príncipe in the Gulf of Guinea. Archachatina bicarinata has never been previously surveyed, despite being categorized as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List and suffering from unregulated harvesting for food. We found that A. bicarinata is restricted to primary rainforest and its abundance and probability of occurrence increased as surveyed sites became less accessible. Additional anecdotal evidence from the observations of previous scientific expeditions, local guides and snail harvesters suggested that the species has suffered a dramatic decline in population size and distribution in recent years. We therefore recommend that immediate action be taken to prevent its imminent extinction on Príncipe. The collection of A. bicarinata from protected areas should be banned, as should commercial harvesting and sales. Subsistence collecting should be limited to larger individuals. Our data have been used to inform the management plans for the protected areas on Príncipe and São Tomé, and this should help to ensure the future of A. bicarinata on both islands.

Despite major efforts to understand and conserve Madagascar’s unique biodiversity, relatively little is known about the island’s carnivore populations. We therefore deployed 43 camera-trap stations in Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar during June–August 2007 to evaluate the efficacy of this method for studying Malagasy carnivores and to estimate the relative abundance and density of carnivores in the eastern rainforest. A total of 755 camera-trap nights provided 1,605 photographs of four endemic carnivore species (fossa Cryptoprocta ferox, Malagasy civet Fossa fossana, ring-tailed mongoose Galidia elegans and broad-striped mongoose Galidictus fasciata), the exotic Indian civet Viverricula indica and the domestic dog Canis familiaris. We identified 38 individual F. fossana and 10 individual C. ferox. We estimated density using both capture-recapture analyses, with a buffer of full mean-maximum-distance-moved, and a spatially-explicit maximum-likelihood method (F. fossana: 3.03 and 2.23 km-2, respectively; C. ferox: 0.15 and 0.17 km-2, respectively). Our estimated densities of C. ferox in rainforest are lower than published estimates for conspecifics in the western dry forests. Within Ranomafana National Park species richness of native carnivores did not vary among trail systems located in secondary, selectively-logged and undisturbed forest. These results provide the first assessment of carnivore population parameters using camera-traps in the eastern rainforests of Madagascar.

Reunion Island in the south-west Indian Ocean once had significant nesting populations of marine turtles but they declined rapidly after human colonization. In 1996, after regular sightings of turtles offshore, an aerial survey programme was initiated to monitor the occurrence of marine turtles and their distribution along the west coast of the island. Between 1998 and 2008, along a 30-km coastline transect between Saint Leu and Saint Paul, a total of 1,845 marine turtle sightings were recorded during 146 flights with an ultralight aircraft. The mean number of turtle sightings per survey increased significantly between 1998 and 2008, and a variety of sizes were recorded throughout the year. Marine turtles were found over coral reef zones and on the outer reef slopes. Spatial distribution may be linked to the topography and substrate of the bottom, which determine the availability of food and shelter. The marine protected area located off Saint Paul seems to have benefited marine turtles as they frequent this area more than other regions on the west coast. These results are encouraging for local organizations working for the conservation of marine turtles on Reunion Island.

Increasing demand for cooking oil and biofuels has made palm oil, > 80% of which is grown in South-east Asia, the dominant globally traded vegetable oil. However, this region is host to some of the world’s most biodiverse and threatened tropical forests. Strategic engagement with commercial operations is increasingly recognized to be an essential part of the solution for raising funds for conservation initiatives, raising consumer consciousness and potentially stemming environmental degradation. Linking market incentives towards conservation is also of critical importance because it is becoming widely recognized that conservation needs to begin to address the wider countryside (outside protected areas) where human–wildlife interactions are frequent and impacts are large. Using the Sumatran tiger Panthera tigris sumatrae as both a threatened species in its own right and emblematic for wider species diversity, we show that western consumers are willing to pay a significant premium for products using palm oil grown in a manner that reduces impacts on such species. Results suggest that the price premium associated with a ‘tiger-friendly’ accreditation may provide a useful additional tool to raise conservation funds and, within the right institutional context, serve as an inducement to address the problem of habitat and species loss.

The emerging field of ethnoprimatology focuses on the conservation implications of ecological and cultural interconnections between humans and other primates. The ethnoprimatological research reported here examined how the Tonkean macaque Macaca tonkeana is situated in the folklore of villagers in Lore Lindu National Park, Sulawesi, Indonesia. Data were collected using ethnographic interview techniques. The interviews revealed that villagers envision monkeys and humans as biologically, ecologically and culturally interrelated. The perceived cultural linkages between humans and macaques, however, are more salient among the indigenous To Lindu than among migrants. For many To Lindu the folklore has resulted in a taboo that prevents them harming the macaques, despite the species’ frequent crop-raiding behaviour. The conservation significance of the taboo is therefore the local protection it affords this endemic primate. This research lends support for the incorporation of informal institutions, such as taboos, in the conservation management of protected areas.

Sightings data of two freshwater-dependent cetaceans, the Ganges River dolphin Platanista gangetica gangetica and Irrawaddy dolphin Orcaella brevirostris, were recorded by captains of three nature tourism vessels operating in waterways of the eastern Sundarbans mangrove forest, Bangladesh. These data were used to investigate channel-type preferences and identify cetacean hotspots according to a scoring system based on group, individual and calf encounter rates, the co-occurrence of both species, and encounter rates in neighbouring segments recorded during monsoon, post-monsoon and dry seasons. Six 5-km segments were identified for priority conservation attention from a total of 38 that were surveyed on at least three occasions during each season. An investigation of habitat preferences evaluated 5-km segments that had been surveyed on five or more occasions (n = 69) and assigned them to one of 12 categories defined by channel width, sinuosity and the number of large and small confluences. Significant differences were found between observed and expected frequencies of occurrence in the different segment categories for Ganges River dolphin groups and individuals and for Irrawaddy dolphin individuals. Both Ganges River and Irrawaddy dolphins selected channels with more than two small confluences or at least one large confluence. Understanding the preferred habitat and identifying hotspots of freshwater-dependent cetaceans in the Sundarbans is the first step of a planning process for the potential establishment of a network of protected waterways for these threatened species.

Asiatic lions Panthera leo persica, once confined to the 1,883 km2 Gir Protected Area in Gujarat, India, have in the past 2 decades colonized the adjacent Girnar forest, coastal scrub and agro-pastoral areas covering c. 10,000 km2. In May 2008 the Government of Gujarat declared 180 km2 of the sacred Girnar forests a Wildlife Sanctuary. We obtained data on location, age, gender and group composition of lions in Girnar Wildlife Sanctuary from opportunistic sightings during March–May 2008 and from systematic surveys in April 2008 (six surveys of 3–4 days each), totalling 81 lions on 40 occasions. Of the 81 sightings 43% were in the recruitment age group. Adult sex ratio was 0.87 males : 1 female. In the systematic survey we made 26 sightings of nine individuals, identified from their vibrissae patterns and permanent body markings, and used these for population estimation using a capture–recapture analysis. The population estimate using the best fit null model Mo was 10 ± SE 1.2 giving an adult lion density of 5.6 ± SE 0.7 per 100 km2. Population viability analysis emphasized the importance of immigrants for the persistence of this small population. One immigrant in 2 years reduced the probability of extinction by 16%. Conservation of the habitat matrix to the south-east of the Sanctuary, used as a corridor for movement between Girnar and Gir, by declaring it an eco-sensitive zone would facilitate the long-term survival of the Girnar lion population.

The Golden Langur Conservation Project in Assam, India, was initiated to involve local NGOs and communities in protecting the Endangered golden langur Trachypithecus geei and its habitat on a regional basis within a complex political situation. Since langurs are leaf eaters they are dependent on forests. The Project area, once dominated by militant action and ethnic violence, is in a densely populated area and formerly suffered much illegal deforestation and accompanying reduction in the golden langur population. The Project began with two NGOs and evolved into the formation of a forum of five NGOs focusing on a large proportion of the golden langur range in Assam, and eventually included > 11 newly formed community-based organizations. Each NGO focused on nearby Reserve Forests and their resident langur populations and adjacent human communities. The community-conservation tools used included (1) initial local community awareness campaigns, (2) formation of local Forest Committees and Self Help Groups, (3) a major regional awareness campaign about the golden langur and its forested habitat in the Manas Biosphere Reserve, and (4) creation of a number of village-based Forest Protection Forces. The Golden Langur Conservation Project has resulted in an increase in the total Indian population of golden langurs, control of illegal logging and poaching in two isolated Reserve Forests by formation of a protection force of surrounding village groups, and curtailing illegal logging and increasing forest protection in the Reserve Forests of the Manas Biosphere Reserve by the formation of 10 tribal, government-sanctioned volunteer Forest Protection Forces. The Project created an atmosphere of community awareness of the golden langur and its forests and community interest within the region, with communities taking responsibility for protection of regional forests.

Because of burgeoning demand in the Chinese market and extensive habitat loss more than half of the freshwater turtle and tortoise species in Asia are categorized as Endangered or Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List. To investigate the distribution and status of the native freshwater turtle species of Taiwan a trapping programme was conducted during 2001–2007, yielding a total of 1,828 individuals of four native species at 103 sites. Mauremys sinensis was the most abundant and widely distributed species; it was collected from 70 sites and accounted for 78.6% of all turtles captures. Mauremys mutica comprised 17.8% at 46 sites. Pelodiscus sinensis were captured in low numbers at 19 sites. No Mauremys reevesii were collected on the main island of Taiwan but the species was found on Kinmen Island near mainland China. Capture success was low at most sites and overall sex ratios were significantly male-biased in all species, suggesting that the freshwater turtles have suffered from the negative effects of habitat disturbance and extensive exploitation. Effective conservation measures are urgently required to ensure the viability of the native freshwater turtle species of Taiwan.

We use the case of the Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx in the Alps to discuss how to implement existing directives and recommendations, as well as how to integrate biological concepts, into practical conservation and wildlife management. Since 1995 the occurrence of lynx in the Alpine countries has been monitored and reported by the Status and Conservation of the Alpine Lynx Population expert group. Both the area of occupancy and the estimated number of individuals increased from 1995–1999 to 2000–2004. The estimated number of lynx is 120–150 across the Alps and the area of occupancy 27,800 km2, in six distinct sub-areas. In the highly fragmented Alpine habitat lynx populations expand slowly, even in situations of high local density and when suitable habitat is available. Thus, almost 40 years after the first reintroduction, < 20% of the Alps have been recolonized by lynx. In addition to biological and ecological factors, the persistent disagreements about the return of the lynx between conservationists and other land-users, including livestock breeders and hunters, and the political fragmentation of the Alps (with different regional priorities and large carnivore policies), has prevented the creation of a consensus regarding pan-Alpine conservation goals for the lynx and the implementation of conservation measures such as translocations and reintroductions. We discuss possible approaches in the light of new guidelines for population level management plans for large carnivores recently developed on behalf of the European Commission.

The conifer forests of the Mediterranean Basin have been subjected to overuse by humans since ancient times. Some species have survived in inaccessible refuges but the ranges of other species have been greatly reduced by the effects of clearance for agriculture, livestock raising, illegal felling and, in some cases, fire. The firs are no exception and some now exist only as relict species. Abies pinsapo is an example, with the species surviving in only three enclaves in southern Spain and two in northern Morocco. Until the mid 20th century A. pinsapo forests were subject to major anthropogenic pressures, and in Spain they were under constant threat of overuse until they were acquired by the State. Conservation efforts have now, however, been undertaken in both Spain and Morocco, and the fact that all the A. pinsapo forests are covered by some form of protection preserves them from further inappropriate use or exploitation. These forests are now recovering after years of intensive grazing and use of their timber for construction, firewood and charcoal making. However, these relict forests face the new threats of climate change, arson and the appearance of pests. The limited area occupied by these forests makes them highly vulnerable to disturbance.

The global population of saiga Saiga tatarica, categorized as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, declined by > 95% at the end of the 20th century, resulting in several conservation initiatives to protect the species. Previously used methods to monitor population trends were inadequate to assess numbers of saiga properly. We report findings from the first survey for Mongolian saiga S. tatarica mongolica to utilize statistically rigorous methodology, using line transect distance sampling in 2006 and 2007 to obtain population estimates in and around the Sharga Nature Reserve, the southern part of the species' current range. We estimate a density of 0.54 and 0.78 saiga km-2 in 2006 and 2007, respectively. Our best models suggest that 4,938 (95% confidence interval, CI = 2,762–8,828) saiga occupied the 4,524-km2 study area in 2006 and 7,221 (95% CI = 4,380–11,903) occupied the 4,678-km2 study area in 2007. Although these estimates, with their large confidence intervals, preclude an assessment of the impacts of conservation initiatives on population trends, they suggest that the Mongolian saiga population is larger than previous reports based on minimum counts, and adequate to support in situ population recovery. Modifications to the survey protocol hold promise for improving the precision of future estimates. Distance sampling may be a useful, scientifically defensible method for monitoring saiga population trends and assessing the effectiveness of conservation efforts to stabilize and recover populations.