The initiation of genome projects on helminths of medical importance promises to yield new drug targets and vaccine candidates in unprecedented numbers. In order to exploit this emerging data it is essential that the user community is aware of the scope and quality of data available, and that the genome projects provide analyses of the raw data to highlight potential genes of interest. Core bioinformatics support for the parasite genome projects has promoted these approaches. In the Brugia genome project, a combination of expressed sequence tag sequencing from multiple cDNA libraries representing the complete filarial nematode lifecycle, and comparative analysis of the sequence dataset, particularly using the complete genome sequence of the model nematode C. elegans, has proved very effective in gene discovery.

Although eosinophilic bar- or droplet-like inclusions are frequently detectable inside eggs deposited in the livers of Schistosoma japonicum-infected animals, little is known of their exact nature. In the livers of mice implanted with freshly laid eggs, inclusion-positive eggs were found in 28·7 and 46·2% of deposited eggs at 2 and 4 weeks, respectively, after implantation, but in 4·3% at 5 weeks when most of the eggs had already degenerated. When the extent of granuloma formation was investigated, granulomas around inclusion-positive eggs were smaller than those around negative eggs. Host factors associated with the formation of inclusion were sought using in vivo and in vitro studies. Following the administration of anti-egg antigen serum into egg-implanted mice, no increase in occurrence of inclusion-positive eggs was seen. In a co-culture of mature eggs with infected rabbit or mouse serum, inclusions were rarely found. In contrast, they were found in 17·9% of eggs in the presence of splenic cells. The present study is the first to show that there is decreased granuloma formation in the presence of eosinophilic inclusions inside eggs and our in vitro study suggests that host cell–egg interaction is responsible for the formation of inclusions.

The Cryptosporidium ITS1, 5·8S and ITS2 rDNA regions from a number of Cryptosporidium isolates from different hosts and geographical areas were cloned and sequenced in order to investigate the extent of sequence heterogeneity between human and cattle-derived isolates from different geographical locations and also between isolates of Cryptosporidium from different hosts such as cats, pigs, mice and a koala. Calf-derived isolates from different continents were virtually identical as were human-derived isolates from the UK and Australia. Genetic differences between Cryptosporidium isolates were extensive and were in fact greater than the level of nucleotide divergence between Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum rDNA sequences. Based on the sequence information derived from this study, PCR–RFLP of the ITS1 region was undertaken in order to directly amplify and genotype Cryptosporidium isolates from different hosts. This PCR–RFLP approach can now be used for molecular epidemiology studies, circumventing the need for costly sequencing and allowing a wider range of genetically different isolates to be examined.

The excretory–secretory (E–S) products of the parasitic nematodes Trichostrongylus colubriformis and Nematodirus battus were found to modify the in vitro proliferation of the tumorous colic HT29-D4 cell line of epithelial origin. A characteristic feature of these E–S products is the presence of a high level of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, the biological significance of which remains unclear. To determine a possible role of AChE on cell growth, the enzyme was purified from E–S products using edrophonium chloride. Purity was confirmed by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, using silver and Karnovsky stains, before assessing its effects on cell proliferation. The purified AChE was incorporated at different concentrations in a culture medium of HT29-D4 cells. A mitogenic effect was shown for low concentrations (0·1–14 units). By contrast, an inhibitory effect was noted at high concentrations (35–1400 units). Furthermore, polyclonal antibodies were prepared and depletion of AChE in E–S products by immunoprecipitation or affinity chromatography resulted in a partial or total disappearance of the stimulatory effect of cell growth. Thus, the results from this in vitro study suggest a modulatory role for AChE secreted by nematode parasites on the proliferation of epithelial cells of the host.

To investigate the phenomenon that PCR of Leishmania (V.) lainsoni minicircles using primers B1 and B2 gives anomalous small-sized products, unlike all other members of the Leishmania Viannia subgenus, cloned kDNA minicircles from L. (Viannia) lainsoni were sequenced using fluorescent dye terminator reactions. The sequence of L. (V.) lainsoni where the primer B2 would be expected to bind, was different from the other members of the L. Viannia subgenus, matching in only 7 out of 19 bases with the sequence of L. (V.) braziliensis at this position. The sequence obtained from the cloned minicircles enabled the design of a new primer which, when combined with B1, allowed the amplification of full sized minicircles in L. (V.) lainsoni, but not other members of the L. Viannia subgenus. Comparison of the sequence obtained for Leishmania (V.) lainsoni with other Leishmania minicircle DNA confirms that Leishmania (V.) lainsoni is more similar to members of the L. Viannia subgenus than to other Leishmania, but is distinctly different.

The phylum Apixomplexa includes obligate intracellular parasites that are of enormous medical and veterinary significance, as they are responsible for a wide variety of diseases including malaria, toxoplasmosis, coccidiosis, cryptosporidiosis, theileriosis and babesiosis. The EST sequencing projects in Toxoplasma gondii and the Plasmodium falciparum genome sequencing project have greatly accelerated gene discovery, revealing for example novel coding sequences restricted to the Apicomplexa. However, easy acquisition of sequence is almost useless if the function of any given gene cannot be tested. The establishment of transfection systems in Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora and in several Plasmodium species has provided us with the reverse genetics methods appropriate to the functional analysis of genes. Over the past few years, the discovery of novel genes coupled to the ability to introduce or modify genes has already contributed to a better understanding of cell biology and pathogenesis of these obligate intracellular parasites. Some insights into the complex processes of parasite invasion, differentiation, regulation of gene expression and protein trafficking are emerging although identification of the exact functional roles for many molecules is still awaiting more investigation. This review summarizes progress in this area. It also emphasises the tight link and synergy between Toxoplasma and malaria research. The use of reverse genetics does not guarantee the answer to gene function, so we can learn from both failed and successful experiments about how better and more efficiently to use ‘genomics’ to accelerate discoveries relevant to the understanding of parasitism by Apicomplexa.

Soluble extracts of adult Schistosoma japonicum and S. mansoni were examined for the presence of proteolytic activities ascribable to dipeptidyl peptidases (DPPs) at a range of pH from 4 to 11 using synthetic peptidyl substrates diagnostic of DPPs I, II, III and IV. Activity capable of cleaving the DPP I-specific substrates H-Gly-Arg-NHMec and H-Gly-Phe-NHMec which exhibited a pH optimum of 5·5 was observed in extracts of schistosomes. Female schistosomes exhibited greater DPP I activity than male schistosomes, while female S. japonicum showed substantially more activity than female S. mansoni. The specific activities against H-Gly-Arg-NHMec were 21·5 and 1·9 nmoles NHMec/min/mg protein for female and male S. japonicum and 8·5 and 1·9 nmoles NHMec/min/mg for female and male S. mansoni. The biochemical properties of schistosome DPP I were similar to mammalian DPP I (=cathepsin C) in that schistosome DPP I was only slowly inhibited by the cysteine protease inhibitor trans-epoxysuccinyl-1-leucylamido (4-guanidino)- butane, partly inhibited by the blocked diazomethyl ketones Z-Phe-Ala-CHN2 and Z-Phe-Phe-CHN2, but enhanced by halide ions. At pH 8·5, activity against the DPP III-specific substrate H-Arg-Arg-NHMec was evident in schistosome extracts, and this activity appeared to be due to a zinc metallo-exopeptidase because it was inhibited by 1,10-phenathroline and by EDTA. DPP II or DPP IV activity was not detected in the schistosome extracts.

Lung-stage schistosomula are the target of protective immunity in mice vaccinated with attenuated cercariae of Schistosoma mansoni. Therefore, proteins present at this developmental stage, and in particular those which are secreted, are a potential source of novel vaccine candidates. However, little information is available about such molecules. Here we describe the cDNA clones identified by screening expression libraries with serum raised against proteins released by lung-stage schistosomula. In total, 11 different cDNA species were identified, 6 of which have been described previously in S. mansoni; these included fructose 1,6-bisphosphate aldolase and Sm21.7 which together accounted for two-thirds of all positive clones. Of the 5 newly described schistosome genes, 1 cDNA had a high degree of homology to the s5a subunit of 26S proteasomes, most significant being with the human protein. The remaining 4 clones showed no significant homologies to any genes sequenced previously. Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate aldolase, Sm21.7, the proteasome homologue and 1 unknown clone (A26) have been expressed in a bacterial expression system and serum produced against each recombinant protein. Immunolocalization showed fructose 1,6-bisphosphate aldolase, Sm21.7 and the proteasome homologue to be most abundant in muscle cells whilst clone A26 was distributed throughout many tissues, but was most abundant in the tegument. Analysis of the cellular immune responses of vaccinated mice showed 3 of the 4 expressed clones to be highly immunogenic, inducing the secretion of large quantities of the Th1-type cytokine interferon gamma.

The intracellular cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi in mammalian host cells involves the differentiation of dividing amastigote forms into flagellated trypomastigote forms. The mechanism(s) regulating the growth and differentiation of the intracellular parasites is (are) not known. The number of parasites in infected cells can be several hundred and may be enough to induce apoptosis, a suicide-like death programme, generating products (e.g. nuclear proteins) that could function as signals to initiate the differentiation of amastigotes into trypomastigotes. Murine fibroblasts infected with T. cruzi were examined during a 5-day course of infection for evidence of apoptosis. However, characteristics of apoptosis, including degeneration of nuclear structure, condensation of chromatin, loss of plasma membrane integrity, or the cleavage of DNA into nucleosomal fragments, were not observed. Therefore, it is unlikely that products resulting from host cell apoptosis function to induce parasite differentiation. The possibility that T. cruzi might inhibit host cell apoptosis by increasing intracellular levels of Bcl-2, an endogenous inhibitor of apoptosis, was then investigated. Analysis of infected cells by flow cytometry did not demonstrate a significant amount of intracellular Bcl-2. This suggests that if the parasite is inhibiting host cell apoptosis, it is by a method that does not involve increasing levels of Bcl-2.

Cysts of a Sarcocystis species were found in large numbers in skeletal muscle of an otter (Lutra lutra) which was raised in Norway and died in captivity in Sweden. This is the first report of Sarcocystis infection in the otter. The sarcocysts were 0·3–2·3 mm long and 0·06–0·25 mm wide. As judged by light microscopy the sarcocyst walls were thin (<3 μm) with a serrated surface but without visible projections. By transmission electron microscopy, the sarcocyst wall measured 0·6–1·8 μm and had minute undulations covering the entire sarcocyst surface giving the wall a wavy appearance. Septa were indistinct. The sarcocysts contained few metrocytes and numerous bradyzoites. Sarcocysts were not found in 69 other otters subjected to necropsy in Sweden.

Trypanosoma rangeli can infect humans and the same domestic and wild animals and triatomine vectors infected by T. cruzi in Central and South America. This overlapping distribution complicates the epidemiology of Chagas disease because of the cross-reactivity between T. rangeli and T. cruzi antigens. We have studied T. rangeli strains isolated from different geographical regions using the mini-exon gene as a genetic marker. Two pairs of oligonucleotides directed to this gene were designed in order to detect specifically T. rangeli DNA by PCR assays. This assay was highly sensitive, able to amplify the target sequence using the equivalent DNA content of a single parasite as template, and demonstrated no cross-reactivity with T. cruzi DNA. T. rangeli SC-58 strain, isolated in southern Brazil, showed a distinct electrophoretic pattern from the other T. rangeli strains tested. Low stringency single specific primer-PCR (LSSP) assays were able to detect sequence polymorphisms at the mini-exon gene among T. rangeli strains. Sequence comparisons of this gene revealed that the SC-58 strain was genetically distinct from strains isolated in Central America and northern South America. In addition to insertion/deletion events, the presence of microsatellite repeats in the non-transcribed region of the gene contribute to the intra-species variability.

The construction of the Diama dam on the Senegal River and the ensuing ecological changes have led to a massive outbreak of Schistosoma mansoni infection in Northern Senegal, associated with very high intensity of infections, due to extremely intense transmission. The vectorial capacity of Biomphalaria pfeifferi from Ndombo, near Richard-Toll was investigated in order to assess the role of the snail–parasite relationship in this particular epidemiological situation. The results revealed an unusually high compatibility between the Senegalese S. mansoni strain and its local snail intermediate host, B. pfeifferi. The snail infection rate after exposure to a single miracidium per snail was 87%. The cercarial production of infected snails was very high, with a mean total production of 50456 cercariae per snail. No significant difference was found in the total cercarial output between snails exposed to 1 miracidium and those exposed to 5 miracidia. The increase in the rate of cercarial output was significantly greater in snails exposed to 5 miracidia, but there was a higher mortality in this group. The chronobiological cercarial production pattern showed a peak around mid-day. The implications of these findings on the epidemiology of schistosomiasis in Northern Senegal are discussed.

Current control of plant parasitic nematodes often relies on highly toxic and environmentally harmful nematicides. As their use becomes increasingly restricted there is an urgent need to develop crop varieties with resistance to nematodes. The limitations surrounding conventional plant breeding ensure there is a clear opportunity for transgenic resistance to lessen current dependence on chemical control. The increasing use of molecular biology techniques in the field of plant nematology is now providing useful information for the design of novel defences to meet the new needs. Plant responses to parasitism are being investigated at the molecular level and nematode gene products that could be targets for a direct anti-nematode defence are being characterized. The potential of an anti-feedant approach to nematode control has been demonstrated. It is based on the transgenic expression of proteinase inhibitors. The rational development of this strategy involves characterization of nematode proteinase genes and optimization of inhibitors by protein engineering. Durability of the resistance can be enhanced by stacking transgenes directed at different nematode targets.

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus has a highly focal distribution through Eurasia. Endemic cycles appear to depend on the transmission of non-systemic infections between ticks co-feeding on the same rodent hosts. The particular features of seasonal dynamics and infestation patterns of larval and nymphal Ixodes ricinus, but not Dermacentor reticulatus, from 4 regions within TBE foci in Slovakia, are such as to promote TBE virus transmission. The distributions of larvae and nymphs on their principal rodent hosts are highly aggregated and, rather than being independent, the distributions of each stage are coincident so that the same ca. 20% of hosts feed about three-quarters of both larvae and nymphs. This results in twice the number of infectible larvae feeding alongside potentially infected nymphs compared with the null hypothesis of independent distributions. Overall, co-feeding transmission under these circumstances brings the reproductive number (R0) for TBE virus to a level that accounts quantitatively for maintained endemic cycles. Essential for coincident aggregated distributions of larvae and nymphs is their synchronous seasonal activity. Preliminary comparisons support the prediction of a greater degree of coincident seasonality within recorded TBE foci than outside. This identifies the particular climatic factors that permit such patterns of tick seasonal dynamics as the primary predictors for the focal distribution of TBE.

Many studies of entomopathogenic nematodes (Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae) have reported that only a small proportion (typically <40%) of infective stages (dauers), even under apparently ideal conditions, actually infect a host. The ‘phased infectivity hypothesis’ is most frequently invoked to explain this pattern of low infection with entomopathogenic nematodes. It proposes that at a given point in time not all individuals are infectious i.e. infectiousness is delayed in some individuals. We tested experimentally several predictions based on this hypothesis. Specifically, if phased infectivity occurs, we should be able to expose dauers to increasing numbers of potential hosts until dauers no longer infect and still be able to recover viable dauers. These recovered dauers which did not infect should be infectious at some later point in time. However, our results do not support the phased infectivity hypothesis for 3 species of Steinernema: most dauers could be recovered in one sampling round when provided with sufficient suitable hosts. In contrast, Heterorhabditis bacteriophora frequently did not infect all available hosts, and infectious dauers were recovered in subsequent sampling rounds. This result is more consistent with the phased infectivity hypothesis, but further research is needed before we can be more confident in the hypothesis. For all species tested, the number of available hosts influenced population levels of nematode infectivity. This suggests that the infection status of hosts can influence whether a dauer infects. Our results indicate that phased infectivity is not a common phenomenon in entomopathogenic nematode dauers, despite the widespread acceptance of this hypothesis.

Oesophagostomum bifurcum, as well as hookworm infections are hyperendemic among humans in northern Togo and Ghana. For parasite-specific diagnosis a coproculture is obligatory, because only the infective larvae, and not the eggs, can be distinguished morphologically. The sensitivity of duplicate coprocultures from a single stool sample was found to be above 90% in comparison to a gold standard of 10 coprocultures made from a single stool specimen. Prevalence of infection with O. bifurcum and hookworm further increased with the number of coprocultures made from each individual stool. Notwithstanding the high sensitivity, intensity of infection per individual varied considerably from day-to-day and the number of larvae found in different samples out of 1 stool also varied highly, both showing a heterogeneous distribution. Surprisingly, daily fluctuation and within-specimen variation could not be differentiated from each other, probably because of the variation created by the coproculture technique. To estimate the intensity of infection, it is sufficient to make repeated coprocultures from only 1 individual stool sample. Laborious collection of stool samples on subsequent days does not give better estimates of the individual infection status.

A Bge cell co-culture system, previously shown to support the in vitro production of daughter sporocysts from mother sporocysts of Schistosoma mansoni and S. japonicum, has proven capable of supporting the in vitro development of intramolluscan stages of the deer liver fluke, Fascioloides magna. Miracidia commenced transforming within 4 h of incubation with Bge cells, and had completely shed their epidermal plates within 18–24 h. Redial stages were visible inside in vitro-transformed mother sporocysts after 12–16 days of co-culture with Bge cells, and emerged as fully-developed larvae starting at 14–20 days post-cultivation. Rediae survived over 60 days of in vitro culture, and reached a maximum size of 150–170 μm. Although particulate material was visible in their cecae, rediae were not observed to actively feed on Bge cells. Bge cells did not attach to or encapsulate larval stages at any time throughout the incubation period. Unlike Schistosoma spp., in which a high percentage of miracidia spontaneously shed their ciliated epidermal plates and transformed into mother sporocysts in Chernin's balanced saline solution (CBSS), transformation of F. magna was dependent on Bge cell products. Less than 5% of F. magna miracidia transformed spontaneously in either CBSS or Bge medium with 10% fetal bovine serum (complete or C-Bge). However, incubation of miracidia in either Bge cell-conditioned C-Bge medium or a greater than 30 kDa fraction concentrated from conditioned CBSS increased transformation rates to 67 and 83%, respectively. This secretory Bge cell factor(s) appeared to be protein in nature since its activity was completely abrogated by heat or proteinase K treatments. Overall, these results demonstrate that Bge cells are required for stimulating in vitro miracidial transformation and supporting early larval development of a fasciolid trematode under culture conditions. This is the first report of in vitro development of rediae from miracidia for a digenetic trematode.

An infection approach was adopted for examining consequential heat shock (HS) or stress response in brain and spleen tissues from Wistar rats. Stress in this system was due to interactions with the infecting helminth, Trichinella spiralis, or its body-dwelling larval stages, or products thereof. It was argued that in the infection model used, elements effecting stress in the brain would differ from those in the spleen. HS responses were measured by quantitation of 4 levels of HS proteins (HSP25, HSP60, HSP70 and HSP90) with time, in infected and uninfected rat tissues using an assay depending on immunoblotting specifically to detect the separate HSPs and image analysis to measure HSP content. In brain and spleen tissue from uninfected rats, a continuous expression of the above HSPs was observed at levels which hardly varied throughout the experiment. In contrast, HSP25, HSP60 and HSP70 levels in infected rat tissues varied and apparently depended on ‘infection cycle’-related events. Thus, an enhanced expression of HSP25 and HSP60 and of these plus HSP70 was observed at certain, yet different, time-points during infection in rat spleen and rat brain, respectively. Interestingly, HSP90 expression in spleen tissue from infected rats versus controls, was significantly reduced throughout the experiment suggesting some important (as yet undefined) role for HSP90 in the infection cycle. These studies seem to have provided evidence for the occurrence of soluble factors causing altered HSP expression at both sides of the blood-brain barrier in rats with a primary T. spiralis infection.

Density-dependent effects on adult and larval stages of the introduced nematode parasite Anguillicola crassus in the European eel definitive host were examined in the laboratory in naturally infected fish, and in field samples. The effect of adult nematode subpopulations on larval development over time and the effect of increasing adult intensity on the gravid female subpopulations were investigated. At high adult subpopulations the movement of larvae from the swimbladder wall into the swimbladder lumen appears to be inhibited, and A. crassus larvae to be arrested in development in a density-dependent manner. The number of gravid females per host reaches a constant level, and so the proportion of gravid female nematodes per adult subpopulation decreases relative to further increasing total adult nematode numbers. Both these mechanisms have the potential to regulate infrapopulations of A. crassus within the eel definitive host and thus the parasite suprapopulation.

Genome sequence information in combination with new technologies has allowed researchers to approach genetic problems in new ways. High-density oligonucleotide arrays were used to probe the genome content of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We show that these arrays, containing oligonucleotides complementary to the sequenced strain of S. cerevisiae, can be used to identify open reading frames that are missing or present in higher or lower copy number in related isolates of S. cerevisiae. We apply this method to the characterization of the genome of a strain derived from a clinical isolate of S. cerevisiae. Our results show that the telomeres are the regions with the most variability between the two strains.