Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-14T17:01:52.320Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Cognitive systems for revenge and forgiveness

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 February 2013

Michael E. McCullough ,
Robert Kurzban  and
Benjamin A. Tabak
Michael E. McCullough
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33124-0751. mikem@miami.eduhttp://www.psy.miami.edu/faculty/mmccullough
Robert Kurzban
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, andEconomic Science Institute, Chapman University, Orange, CA 92866. kurzban@psych.upenn.eduhttp://www.psych.upenn.edu/~kurzban/
Benjamin A. Tabak
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of California–Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1563. btabak@psych.ucla.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Minimizing the costs that others impose upon oneself and upon those in whom one has a fitness stake, such as kin and allies, is a key adaptive problem for many organisms. Our ancestors regularly faced such adaptive problems (including homicide, bodily harm, theft, mate poaching, cuckoldry, reputational damage, sexual aggression, and the infliction of these costs on one's offspring, mates, coalition partners, or friends). One solution to this problem is to impose retaliatory costs on an aggressor so that the aggressor and other observers will lower their estimates of the net benefits to be gained from exploiting the retaliator in the future. We posit that humans have an evolved cognitive system that implements this strategy – deterrence – which we conceptualize as a revenge system. The revenge system produces a second adaptive problem: losing downstream gains from the individual on whom retaliatory costs have been imposed. We posit, consequently, a subsidiary computational system designed to restore particular relationships after cost-imposing interactions by inhibiting revenge and motivating behaviors that signal benevolence for the harmdoer. The operation of these systems depends on estimating the risk of future exploitation by the harmdoer and the expected future value of the relationship with the harmdoer. We review empirical evidence regarding the operation of these systems, discuss the causes of cultural and individual differences in their outputs, and sketch their computational architecture.

Keywords

adaptationismaggressioncomputationconflictcost/benefit analysisevolutionevolutionary psychologyforgivenessfunctionpunishmentreconciliationsocial relationshipsrevengeviolencesocial psychology
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 36 , Issue 1 , February 2013 , pp. 1 - 15
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allan, A., Allan, M, M., Kaminer, D. & Stein, D. J. (2006) Exploration of the association between apology and forgiveness amongst victims of human rights violations. Behavioral Science and the Law 24(1):87–102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, C. & Putterman, L. (2006) Do non-strategic sanctions obey the law of demand? The demand for punishment in the voluntary contribution mechanism. Games and Economic Behavior 54:1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, E. (1999) Code of the street. W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
Andreoni, J., Harbaugh, W. & Vesterlund, L. (2003) The carrot or the stick: Rewards, punishments, and cooperation. American Economic Review 93:893–902.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andrews, P. W., Gangestad, S. W. & Matthews, D. (2002) Adaptationism – How to carry out an exaptationist program. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 25:489–504.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Archer, J. (2004) Sex differences in aggression in real-world settings: A meta-analytic review. Review of General Psychology 8:291–322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archer, J. (2009) Does sexual selection explain human sex differences in aggression? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 32:249–311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aureli, F. (1997) Post-conflict anxiety in nonhuman primates: The mediating role of emotion in conflict resolution. Aggressive Behavior 23:315–28.3.0.CO;2-H>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aureli, F., Cozzolino, R., Cordischi, C. & Scucchi, S. (1992) Kin-oriented redirection among Japanese macaques: An expression of a revenge system? Animal Behaviour 44:283–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aureli, F. & de Waal, F. B. M. (2000) Natural conflict resolution. University of California Press.Google Scholar
Aureli, F. & Schaffner, C. M. (2002) Relationship assessment through emotional mediation. Behaviour 139:393–420.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aureli, F. & van Schaik, C. P. (1991b) Post-conflict behaviour in long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis): II. Coping with the uncertainty. Ethology 89(2):101–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Axelrod, R. (1980) More effective choice in the Prisoner's Dilemma. Journal of Conflict Resolution 24:379–403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Axelrod, R. (1984) The evolution of cooperation. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Barclay, P. (2006) Reputational benefits for altruistic punishment. Evolution and Human Behavior 27:325–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, C. D., Brown, R. P. & Osterman, L. L. (2009) Protection, payback, or both? Emotional and motivational mechanisms underlying avoidance by victims of transgressions. Motivation and Emotion 33:400–11.Google Scholar
Baskin, T. W. & Enright, R. D. (2004) Intervention studies on forgiveness: A meta-analysis. Journal of Counseling and Development 82:79–90.Google Scholar
Batson, C. D. (2011) Altruism in humans. Oxford.Google Scholar
Batson, C. D., Kennedy, C. L., Nord, L., Stocks, E. L., Fleming, D. A., Marzette, C. M., Lishner, D. A., Hayes, R. E., Kolchinsky, L. M. & Zerger, T. (2007) Anger at unfairness: Is it moral outrage? European Journal of Social Psychology 37:1272–85.Google Scholar
Bayer, C. P., Klasen, F. & Adam, H. (2007) Association of trauma and PTSD symptoms with openness to reconciliation and feelings of revenge among former Ugandan and Congolese child soldiers. Journal of the American Medical Association 298:555–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beckerman, S., Erickson, P. I., Yost, J., Regalado, J., Jaramillo, L., Sparks, C., Iromenga, M. & Long, K. (2009) Life histories, blood revenge, and reproductive success among the Waorani of Ecuador. Proceedings of the National Academy Sciences USA 106:8134–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bendor, J., Kramer, R. M. & Stout, S. (1991) When in doubt: Cooperation in a noisy prisoner's dilemma. Journal of Conflict Resolution 35:691–719.Google Scholar
Bentham, J. (1962) Principles of penal law. In: The works of Jeremy Bentham, ed. Bowring, J., pp. 365–580. Russell and Russell.Google Scholar
Berg, J., Dickhaut, J. & McCabe, K. (1995) Trust, reciprocity and social history. Games and Economic Behavior 10:122–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernhard, H., Fischbacher, U. & Fehr, E. (2006) Parochial altruism in humans. Nature 442:912–15.Google Scholar
Bettencourt, B. A. & Miller, N. (1996) Gender differences in aggression as a function of provocation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 119:422–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bixenstine, V. E. & Wilson, K. V. (1963) Effects of level of cooperative choice by the other player on choices in a prisoner's dilemma game. Part II. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 67:139–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Black-Michaud, J. (1975) Cohesive force: Feud in the Mediterranean and the Middle East. Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Bochet, O., Page, T. & Putterman, L. (2006) Communication and punishment in voluntary contribution experiments. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 60:11–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boehm, C. (1987) Blood revenge: The enactment and management of conflict in Montenegro and other tribal societies, 2nd edition. University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Boehm, C. (2008) Purposive social selection and the evolution of human altruism. Cross-Cultural Research 42:319–52.Google Scholar
Bolton, G. E. & Zwick, R. (1995) Anonymity versus punishment in ultimatum bargaining. Games and Economic Behavior 10:95–121.Google Scholar
Bottom, W. P., Gibson, K., Daniels, S. E. & Murnighan, J. K. (2002) When talk is not cheap: Substantive penance and expressions of intent in rebuilding cooperation. Organization Science 13:497–513.Google Scholar
Brezina, T., Agnew, R., Cullen, F. T. & Wright, J. P. (2004) The code of the street: A quantitative assessment of Elijah Anderson's subculture of violence thesis and its contribution to youth violence research. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 2:303–28.Google Scholar
Brown, B. R. (1968) The effects of need to maintain face on interpersonal bargaining. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 4:107–22.Google Scholar
Brown, D. E. (1991) Human universals. McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Bshary, R. & Grutter, A. S. (2005) Punishment and partner switching cause cooperative behavior in a cleaning mutualism. Biology Letters 1:396–99.Google Scholar
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (1999) Arson and Explosives Incidents Report, 1997. (No. ATF P 3320.4).Google Scholar
Burnham, T. C. (2003) Engineering altruism: A theoretical and experimental investigation of anonymity and gift giving. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 50:133–44.Google Scholar
Burnham, T. C. & Johnson, D. D. P. (2005) The biological and evolutionary logic of human cooperation. Analyse & Kritik 27:113–35.Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. (2009) How can evolutionary psychology successfully explain personality and individual differences? Perspectives on Psychological Science 4:359–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Call, J., Aureli, F. & de Waal, F. B. M. (1999) Reconciliation patterns among stumptailed macaques: A multivariate approach. Animal Behaviour 58:165–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Camerer, C. F. (2003) Behavioral game theory. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Cant, M. A. (2011) The role of threats in animal cooperation. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 278:170–78.Google Scholar
Cant, M. A. & Johnstone, R. A. (2006) Self-serving punishment and the evolution of cooperation. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 19:1383–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carcach, C. (1997) Youth as victims and offenders of homicide, No. 73. Australian Institute of Criminology.Google Scholar
Cardona, M., Garcia, H. I., Giraldo, C. A., Lopez, M. V., Suarez, C. M., Corcho, D. C., Posada, C. H. & Florez, M. N. (2005) Homicides in Medellin, Colombia, from 1990 to 2002: Victims, motives, and circumstances. Cadernos de Salude Publica, Rio de Janeiro 21:840–51.Google Scholar
Carlsmith, K. M., Wilson, T. D. & Gilbert, D. T. (2008) The paradoxical consequences of revenge. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95:1316–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, M. & Miller, N. (1988) Bad experiences and aggression. Sociology and Social Research 72:155–58.Google Scholar
Carmichael, C. M. & McGue, M. (1995) A cross-sectional examination of height, weight, and body mass index in adult twins. Journal of Gerontology Series A: Biological and Medical Sciences 50:B237–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carpenter, J. P. & Matthews, P. H. (2004) Social reciprocity. Middlebury College Department of Economics, working paper.Google Scholar
Carpenter, J. P. & Matthews, P. H. (2009) What norms trigger punishment? Experimental Economics 12:272–88.Google Scholar
Carpenter, J. P. & Matthews, P. H. (2012) Norm enforcement: Anger, indignation, or reciprocity? Journal of the European Economic Association. 10:555–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castles, D. L. & Whiten, A. (1998b) Post-conflict behaviour of Wild Olive baboons. II. Stress and self-directed behaviour. Ethology 104:148–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chagnon, N. (1988) Life histories, blood revenge, and warfare in a tribal population. Science, 239:985–92.Google Scholar
Cheney, D. L. & Seyfarth, R. M. (2007) Baboon metaphysics: The evolution of a social mind. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Cinyabuguma, M., Page, T. & Putterman, L. (2006) Can second-order punishment deter perverse punishment? Experimental Economics 9:265–79.Google Scholar
Clark, K. & Sefton, M. (2001) The sequential prisoner's dilemma: Evidence on reciprocation. The Economic Journal 111:51–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clavien, C. & Klein, R. A. (2010) Eager for fairness or for revenge? Psychological altruism in economics. Economics and Philosophy 26:267–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H. (1989) Mammalian mating systems. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: 236:339–72.Google Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H. & Parker, G. A. (1995) Punishment in animal societies. Nature 373:209–16.Google Scholar
Cohen, D., Nisbett, R. E., Bowdle, B. F. & Schwarz, N. (1996) Insult, aggression, and the Southern culture of honor: An “experimental ethnography.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70:945–60.Google Scholar
Cools, A. K. A., Van Hout, A. J.-M. & Nelissen, M. H. J. (2008) Canine reconciliation and third-party-initiated postconflict affiliation: Do peacemaking social mechanisms in dogs rival those of higher primates? Ethology 114:53–63.Google Scholar
Cooper, M. A., Bernstein, I. S. & Hemelrijk, C. K. (2005) Reconciliation and relationship quality in Assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis). American Journal of Primatology 65:269–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Copeland-Linder, N., Jones, V. C., Haynie, D. L., Simons-Morton, B. G., Wright, J. L. & Cheng, T. L. (2007) Factors associated with retaliatory attitudes among African American adolescents who have been assaulted. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 32:760–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cordoni, G. & Palagi, E. (2008) Reconciliation in Wolves (Canis lupus): New evidence for a comparative perspective. Ethology 114:298–308.Google Scholar
Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (1988) Homicide. Aldine de Gruyter.Google ScholarPubMed
Daniel, J. R., Santos, A. J. & Cruz, M. G. (2009) Postconflict behaviour in brown capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Folia Primatologica 80:329–40.Google Scholar
Davis, D. E., Worthington, E. L. Jr., Hook, J. N., Van Tongeren, D. L., Green, J. D. & Jennings, D. J. (2009) Relational spirituality and the development of the Similarity of the Offender's Spirituality Scale. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality 1:249–62.Google Scholar
de Jong, P. J., Peters, M. L. & de Cremer, D. (2003) Blushing may signify guilt: Revealing effects of blushing in ambiguous social situations. Motivation and Emotion 27:225–49.Google Scholar
Denant-Boemont, L., Masclet, D. & Noussair, C. N. (2007) Punishment, counterpunishment and sanction enforcement in a social dilemma experiment. Economic Theory 33:145–67.Google Scholar
DeScioli, P. & Kurzban, R. (2009b) The alliance hypothesis for human friendship. PLoS One 4:e5802.Google Scholar
de Waal, F. B. M. (2000) Primates – A natural heritage of conflict resolution. Science 289(5479):586–90.Google Scholar
de Waal, F. B. M. & van Roosmalen, A. (1979) Reconciliation and consolation among chimpanzees. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 5:55–66.Google Scholar
DeWall, C. N., Baumeister, R. F., Stillman, T. F. & Gailliot, M. T. (2007) Violence restrained: Effects of self-regulation and its depletion on aggression. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 43:62–76.Google Scholar
Diamond, S. R. (1977) The effect of fear on the aggressive responses of anger aroused and revenge motivated subjects. Journal of Psychology 95:185–88.Google Scholar
DiBlasio, F. & Benda, B. B. (1991) Practitioners, religion and the use of forgiveness in the clinical setting. Journal of Psychology and Christianity 10:166–72.Google Scholar
Dijk, C., de Jong, P. J. & Peters, M. L. (2009) The remedial value of blushing in the context of transgressions and mishaps. Emotion 9:287–91.Google Scholar
Dooley, E. (2001) Homicide in Ireland 1992–1996. Government Report No. 9435. Government of Ireland.Google Scholar
dos Santos, M., Rankin, D. J. & Wedekind, C. (2011) The evolution of punishment through reputation. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B 278:371–77.Google Scholar
Dreber, A., Rand, D. G., Fudenberg, D. & Nowak, M. A. (2008) Winners don't punish. Nature 452(7185):348–51.Google Scholar
Dunbar, R. I. M., Clark, A. & Hurst, N. L. (1995) Conflict and cooperation among the Vikings: Contingent behavioral decisions. Ethology and Sociobiology 16:233–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eaton, J. & Struthers, C. W. (2006) The reduction of psychological aggression across varied interpersonal contexts through repentance and forgiveness. Aggressive Behavior 32:195–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eaton, J., Struthers, C. W. & Santelli, A. G. (2006) The mediating role of perceptual validation in the repentance-forgiveness process. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 32:1389–401.Google Scholar
Eaves, L. J., Hatemi, P. K., Prom-Womley, E. C. & Murrelle, L. (2008) Social and genetic influences on adolescent religious attitudes and practices. Social Forces 86:1621–46.Google Scholar
Egas, M. & Riedl, A. (2008) The economics of altruistic punishment and the maintenance of cooperation. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 275:871–78.Google Scholar
Eisenberger, R., Lynch, P., Aselage, J. & Rohdieck, S. (2004) Who takes the most revenge? Individual differences in negative reciprocity norm endorsement. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30:787–99.Google Scholar
Elster, J. (1990) Norms of revenge. Ethics 100:862–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Engel, C. (in press) Dictator games: A meta-study. Experimental Economics.Google Scholar
Engh, A. L., Siebert, E. R., Greenberg, D. A. & Holekamp, K. E. (2005) Patterns of alliance formation and postconflict aggression indicate spotted hyaenas recognize third-party relationships. Animal Behaviour 69:209–17.Google Scholar
Enright, R. D. & Coyle, C. T. (1998) Researching the process model of forgiveness within psychological interventions. In: Dimensions of forgiveness: Psychological research and theological perspectives, ed. Worthington, E. L. Jr., pp. 139–61. Templeton Foundation Press.Google Scholar
Ericksen, K. P. & Horton, H. (1992) “Blood feuds”: Cross-cultural variations in kin group vengeance. Behavior Science Research 26:57–85.Google Scholar
Fehr, E. & Fischbacher, U. (2004) Third-party punishment and social norms. Evolution and Human Behavior 25:63–87.Google Scholar
Fehr, E. & Gächter, S. (2000) Cooperation and punishment in public goods experiments. American Economic Review 90:980–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fehr, E. & List, J. A. (2004) The hidden costs and returns of incentives – Trust and trustworthiness among CEOs. Journal of the European Economic Association 2:743–71.Google Scholar
Fehr, R., Gelfand, M. J. & Nag, M. (2010) The road to forgiveness: A meta-analytic synthesis of its situational and dispositional correlates. Psychological Bulletin 136:894–914.Google Scholar
Felson, R. B. (1982) Impression management and the escalation of aggression and violence. Social Psychology Quarterly 45:245–54.Google Scholar
Fessler, D. M. T. (2010) Madmen: An evolutionary perspective on anger and men's violent responses to transgression. In: International handbook of anger: Constituent and concomitant biological, psychological, and social processes, ed. Potegal, M., Stemmler, G. & Spielberger, C., pp. 361–81. Springer.Google Scholar
Finkel, E. J., Rusbult, C. E., Kumashiro, M. & Hannon, P. A. (2002) Dealing with betrayal in close relationships: Does commitment promote forgiveness? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82(6):956–74.Google Scholar
Fitness, J. & Peterson, J. (2008) Punishment and forgiveness in close relationships: An evolutionary, social-psychological perspective. In: Social relationships: Cognitive, affective, and motivational perspectives, ed. Forgas, J. P. & Fitness, J., pp. 255–69. Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Frank, R. H. (1988) Passions within reason: The strategic role of the emotions. Norton.Google Scholar
Fraser, O. N. & Bugnyar, T. (2011) Ravens reconcile after aggressive conflicts with valuable partners. PLoS One 6:1–5.Google Scholar
Fraser, O. N., Stahl, D. & Aureli, F. (2010) The function and determinants of reconciliation in Pan troglodytes. International Journal of Primatology 31:39–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frean, M. R. (1994) The prisoner's dilemma without synchrony. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B – Biological Sciences 257:75–79.Google Scholar
Freedman, S. R. & Enright, R. D. (1996) Forgiveness as an intervention goal with incest survivors. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 64:983–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frijda, N. H. (1994) The lex talionis: On vengeance. In: Emotions: Essays on emotion theory, ed. van Goozen, S. H. M., Van de Poll, N. E. & Sargeant, J. A., pp. 263–89. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Gallup, A., White, D. & Gallup, G. (2007) Handgrip strength predicts sexual behavior, body morphology, and aggression in male college students. Evolution and Human Behavior 28:423–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardner, A. & West, S. A. (2004) Cooperation and punishment, especially in humans. American Naturalist 164:753–64.Google Scholar
Gaylord, M. S. & Galligher, J. F. (1994) Death penalty politics and symbolic law in Hong Kong. International Journal of the Sociology of Law 22:19–37.Google Scholar
Gold, G. J. & Weiner, B. (2000) Remorse, confession, group identity, and expectancies about repeating a transgression. Basic and Applied Social Psychology 22:291–300.Google Scholar
Gould, R. V. (2000) Revenge as sanction and solidarity display: An analysis of vendettas in nineteenth-century Corsica. American Sociological Review 65:682–704.Google Scholar
Govier, T. (2002) Forgiveness and revenge. Routledge.Google Scholar
Gürerk, O., Irlenbusch, B. & Rockenbach, B. (2006) The competitive advantage of sanctioning institutions. Science 312:108–11.Google Scholar
Güth, W., Schmittberger, R. & Schwarze, B. (1982) An experimental analysis of ultimatum bargaining. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 3:367–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hagen, E. H. & Hammerstein, P. (2006) Game theory and human evolution: A critique of some recent interpretations of experimental games. Theoretical Population Biology 69:339–48.Google Scholar
Hamilton, W. D. (1964) The genetical evolution of social behaviour, I & II. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7(1):1–52.Google Scholar
Harris, J. R. (2006) No two alike: Human nature and human individuality. Norton.Google Scholar
Hauert, C. & Schuster, H. G. (1998) Extending the iterated prisoner's dilemma without synchrony. Journal of Theoretical Biology 192:155–66.Google Scholar
Hayashi, N., Ostrom, E., Walker, J. & Yamagishi, T. (1999) Reciprocity, trust, and the sense of control: A cross-societal study. Rationality and Society 11:27–46.Google Scholar
Hebl, J. & Enright, R. D. (1993) Forgiveness as a psychotherapeutic goal with elderly females. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training 30:658–67.Google Scholar
Henrich, J. (2009) The evolution of costly displays, cooperation and religion: Credibility enhancing displays and their implications for cultural evolution. Evolution and Human Behavior 30:244–60.Google Scholar
Henrich, J., McElreath, R., Barr, A., Ensminger, J., Barrett, C., Bolyanatz, A., Cardenas, J. C., Gurven, M., Gwako, E., Henrich, N., Lesorogol, C., Marlowe, F. W., Tracer, D. & Ziker, J. (2006) Costly punishment across human societies. Science 312:1767–70.Google Scholar
Herrmann, B., Thöni, C. & Gächter, S. (2008) Antisocial punishment across societies. Science 319:1362–67.Google Scholar
Hess, N. H. & Hagen, E. H. (2006) Sex differences in indirect aggression: Psychological evidence from young adults. Evolution and Human Behavior 27:231–45.Google Scholar
Hirshleifer, J. (1987) On the emotions as guarantors of threats and promises. In: The latest on the best: Essays on evolution and optimality, ed. Dupré, J., pp. 307–26. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Hoover, J. P. & Robinson, S. K. (2007) Retaliatory mafia behavior by a parasitic cowbird favors host acceptance of parasitic eggs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 104:4479–83.Google Scholar
Hope, D. (1987) The healing paradox of forgiveness. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training 24:240–44.Google Scholar
Hopfensitz, A. & Reuben, E. (2009) The importance of emotions for the effectiveness of social punishment. The Economic Journal 119:1534–59.Google Scholar
Horney, K. (1948) The value of vindictiveness. American Journal of Psychoanalysis 8:3–12.Google Scholar
Hruschka, D. J. & Henrich, J. (2006) Friendship, cliquishness, and the emergence of cooperation. Journal of Theoretical Biology 239:1–15.Google Scholar
Human Development Study Group (1991) Five points on the construct of forgiveness within psychotherapy. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training 28:493–96.Google Scholar
Ishikawa, S. S., Raine, A., Lencz, T., Bihrle, S. & LaCasse, L. (2001) Increased height and bulk in antisocial personality disorder and its subtypes. Psychiatry Research 105:211–19.Google Scholar
Jacoby, S. (1983) Wild justice: The evolution of revenge. Harper and Row.Google Scholar
Jensen, K. (2010) Punishment and spite, the dark side of cooperation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 365:2635–50.Google Scholar
Jensen, K., Call, J. & Tomasello, M. (2007) Chimpanzees are vengeful but not spiteful. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 104:13046–50.Google Scholar
Kääriäinen, J. T. (2007) Trust in the police in 16 European societies: A multilevel analysis. European Journal of Criminology 4:409–35.Google Scholar
Kachadourian, L. K., Fincham, F. & Davila, J. (2004) The tendency to forgive in dating and married couples: The role of attachment and relationship satisfaction. Personal Relationships 11:373–93.Google Scholar
Karremans, J. C. & Aarts, H. (2007) The role of automaticity in determining the inclination to forgive close others. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 43:902–17.Google Scholar
Katsukake, N. & Castles, D. L. (2001) Reconciliation and variation in post-conflict stress in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata fuscata): Testing the integrated hypothesis. Animal Cognition 4:259–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keltner, D. & Buswell, B. N. (1997) Embarrassment: Its distinct form and appeasement functions. Psychological Bulletin 122:250–70.Google Scholar
Kim, S. H., Smith, R. H. & Brigham, N. L. (1998) Effects of power imbalance and the presence of third parties on reactions to harm: Upward and downward revenge. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 24:353–61.Google Scholar
King-Casas, B., Sharp, C., Lomax-Bream, L., Lohrenz, T., Fonagy, P. & Montague, P. R. (2008) The rupture and repair of cooperation in borderline personality disorder. Science 321:806–10.Google Scholar
Klapwijk, A. & Van Lange, P. A. M. (2009) Promoting cooperation and trust in noisy situations: The power of generosity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 96:83–103.Google Scholar
Koenig, B. L. & Ketelaar, T. (2006) Why big guys don't smile: Preliminary evidence for reactive heritability in collegiate football players. Paper presented at the Human Behavior and Evolution Society Meeting, Philadelphia, PA, June 2006.Google Scholar
Kollock, P. (1998) Social dilemmas: Anatomy of cooperation. Annual Review of Sociology 24:183–214.Google Scholar
Koski, S. E., Koops, K. & Sterck, E. H. M. (2007) Reconciliation, relationship quality, and postconflict anxiety: Testing the integrated hypothesis in captive chimpanzees. American Journal of Primatology 69:158–72.Google Scholar
Koyama, N. F. (2001) The long-term effects of reconciliation in Japanese macaques, Macaca fuscata. Ethology 107:975–87.Google Scholar
Kubrin, C. E. & Weitzer, R. (2003) Retaliatory homicide: Concentrated disadvantage and neighborhood culture. Social Problems 50:157–80.Google Scholar
Kurzban, R. & DeScioli, P. (submitted) Adaptationist punishment in humans.Google Scholar
Lassek, W. D. & Gaulin, S. J. C. (2009) Costs and benefits of fat-free muscle mass in men: Relationship to mating success, dietary requirements, and native immunity. Evolution and Human Behavior 30:322–28.Google Scholar
Ledyard, J. O. (1995) Public goods: A survey of experimental research. In: Handbook of experimental economics, ed. Kagel, J. & Roth, A. E., pp. 111–94. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Lickel, B., Miller, N., Stenstrom, D. M., Denson, T. F. & Schmader, T. (2006) Vicarious retribution: The role of collective blame in intergroup aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review 10:372–90.Google Scholar
Lieberman, D. & Linke, L. (2007) The effect of social category on third party punishment. Evolutionary Psychology 5:289–305.Google Scholar
Lieberman, D., Tooby, J. & Cosmides, L. (2007) The architecture of human kin detection. Nature 445:727–31.Google Scholar
Lundahl, B. W., Taylor, M. J., Stevenson, R. & Roberts, K. D. (2008) Process-based forgiveness interventions: A meta-analytic review. Research on Social Work Practice 18:465–78.Google Scholar
Marks, M. J. (1988) Remorse, revenge, and forgiveness. Psychotherapy Patient 5:317–30.Google Scholar
Marlowe, F. W., Berbesque, J. C., Barrett, C., Bolyanatz, A., Gurven, M. & Tracer, D. (2011) The “spiteful” origins of human cooperation. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 278:2159–64.Google Scholar
Matsumura, S. & Hayden, T. J. (2006) When should signals of submission be given? – A game theory model. Journal of Theoretical Biology 240:425–33.Google Scholar
Maynard Smith, J. & Harper, D. (2003) Animal signals. Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCullough, M. E. (2008) Beyond revenge: The evolution of the forgiveness instinct. Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
McCullough, M. E., Bellah, C. G., Kilpatrick, S. D. & Johnson, J. L. (2001) Vengefulness: Relationships with forgiveness, rumination, well-being, and the Big Five. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 27:601–10.Google Scholar
McCullough, M. E., Fincham, F. D. & Tsang, J. (2003) Forgiveness, forbearance, and time: The temporal unfolding of transgression-related interpersonal motivations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84:540–57.Google Scholar
McCullough, M. E. & Hoyt, W. T. (2002) Transgression-related motivational dispositions: Personality substrates of forgiveness and their links to the Big Five. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28:1556–73.Google Scholar
McCullough, M. E., Luna, L. R., Berry, J. W., Tabak, B. A. & Bono, G. (2010) On the form and function of forgiving: Modeling the time-forgiveness relationship and testing the valuable relationships hypothesis. Emotion 3:358–76.Google Scholar
McCullough, M. E., Rachal, K. C., Sandage, S. J., Worthington, E. L. Jr., Brown, S. W. & Hight, T. L. (1998) Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships. II: Theoretical elaboration and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75:1586–603.Google Scholar
McCullough, M. E. & Root, L. M. (2005) Forgiveness as change. In: Handbook of forgiveness, ed. Worthington, E. L. Jr., pp. 91–107. Routledge.Google Scholar
McCullough, M. E. & Worthington, E. L. Jr. (1995) Promoting forgiveness: A comparison of two brief psychoeducational group interventions with a waiting-list control. Counseling and Values 40:55–68.Google Scholar
McCullough, M. E., Worthington, E. L. Jr. & Rachal, K. C. (1997) Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73:321–36.Google Scholar
McDermott, R., Tingley, D., Cowden, J., Frazzetto, G. & Johnson, D. D. P. (2009) Monoamine oxidase A gene (MAOA) predicts behavioral aggression following provocation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 106:2118–23.Google Scholar
Miller, A. J., Worthington, E. L. Jr. & McDaniel, M. A. (2008) Forgiveness and gender: A meta-analytic review and research agenda. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 27:843–76.Google Scholar
Mocan, N. H. (2008) Vengeance. Working Paper, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, June 2008. Paper No, 14131. National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved December 20, 2011 from: http://www.nber.org/papers/w14131Google Scholar
Molm, L. D. (1997) Coercive power in social exchange. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Moss, D. B. (1986) Revenge and forgiveness. American Imago (43):191–210.Google Scholar
Mullet, E., Neto, F. & Riviere, S. (2005) Personality and its effects on resentment, revenge, forgiveness, and self-forgiveness. In: Handbook of forgiveness, ed. Worthington, E. L. Jr., pp. 159–81. Routledge/Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Murphy, J. G. (2003) Getting even: Forgiveness and its limits. Oxford.Google Scholar
Nadler, A. & Liviatan, I. (2006) Intergroup reconciliation: Effects of adversary's expressions of empathy, responsibility, and recipients' trust. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 32:459–70.Google Scholar
Nelissen, M. H. J. (2008) The price you pay: Cost-dependent reputation effects of altruistic punishment. Evolution and Human Behavior 29:242–48.Google Scholar
Nesse, R. M. & Williams, G. C. (1994) Why we get sick: The new science of Darwinian medicine. Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Nikiforakis, N. & Normann, H. (2008) A comparative statics analysis of punishment in public goods experiments. Experimental Economics 11:358–69.Google Scholar
Nisbett, R. E. & Cohen, D. (1996) Culture of honor: The psychology of violence in the South. Westview.Google Scholar
Nowak, M. A. & Sigmund, K. (1993) A strategy of win-stay, lose-shift that outperforms tit-for-tat in the Prisoner's Dilemma Game. Nature 364:56–58.Google Scholar
Olson, J. M., Vernon, P. A., Harris, J. A. & Jang, K. L. (2001) The heritability of attitudes: A study of twins. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80:845–60.Google Scholar
Oosterbeek, H., Sloof, R. & Van de Kuilen, G. (2004) Cultural differences in ultimatum game experiments: Evidence from a meta-analysis. Experimental Economics 7:171–88.Google Scholar
Orth, U., Berking, M., Walker, N., Meier, L. L. & Znoj, H. (2008) Forgiveness and psychological adjustment following interpersonal transgressions: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Research in Personality 42:365–85.Google Scholar
Orth, U., Montada, L. & Maercker, A. (2006) Feelings of revenge, retaliation motive, and posttraumatic stress reactions in crime victims. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 21:229–43.Google Scholar
Ostrom, E. (1990) Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ostrom, E., Walker, J. & Gardner, R. (1992) Covenants with and without a sword: Self governance is possible. American Political Science Review 86:404–16.Google Scholar
Page, T., Putterman, L. & Unel, B. (2005) Voluntary association in public goods experiments: Reciprocity, mimicry, and efficiency. The Economic Journal 115:1032–53.Google Scholar
Palagi, E., Antonaccia, D. & Norscia, I. (2008) Peacemaking on treetops: First evidence of reconciliation from a wild prosimian (Propithecus verreauxi) Animal Behaviour 76:737–47.Google Scholar
Parkes, C. M. (1993) Psychiatric problems following bereavement by murder or manslaughter. British Journal of Psychiatry 162:49–54.Google Scholar
Petersen, M. B., Sell, A., Tooby, J. & Cosmides, L. (2010) Evolutionary psychology and criminal justice: A recalibrational theory of punishment and reconciliation. In: Human morality and sociality: Evolutionary and comparative perspectives, ed. Høgh-Olesen, H., pp. 72–131. Palgrave MacMillan.Google Scholar
Phillips, L. J. & Osborne, J. W. (1989) Cancer patients' experiences of forgiveness therapy. Canadian Journal of Counselling 23:236–51.Google Scholar
Pingleton, J. P. (1989) The role and function of forgiveness in the psychotherapeutic process. Journal of Psychology and Theology 17:27–35.Google Scholar
Preuschoft, S., Wang, X., Aureli, F. & de Waal, F. B. M. (2002) Reconciliation in captive chimpanzees: A reevaluation with controlled methods. International Journal of Primatology 23:29–50.Google Scholar
Price, M. E., Cosmides, L. & Tooby, J. (2002) Punitive sentiment as an anti-free rider psychological device. Evolution and Human Behavior 23:203–31.Google Scholar
Pronk, T. M., Karremans, J. C., Overbeek, G., Vermuist, A. A. & Wigboldus, D. H. J. (2010) What it takes to forgive: When and why executive functioning facilitates forgiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 98(1):119–31.Google Scholar
Rand, D. G., Ohtsuki, H. & Nowak, M. A. (2009) Direct reciprocity with costly punishment: Generous tit-for-tat prevails. Journal of Theoretical Biology 256:45–57.Google Scholar
Rapoport, A. & Chammah, A. M. (1965) The prisoner's dilemma. University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Richard, F. D., Bond, C. F. Jr. & Stokes-Zoota, J. J. (2003) One hundred years of social psychology quantitatively described. Review of General Psychology 7:331–63.Google Scholar
Risen, J. L. & Gilovich, T. (2007) Target and observer differences in the acceptance of questionable apologies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92:418–33.Google Scholar
Ritzman, T. A. (1987) Forgiveness: Its role in therapy. Medical Hypnoanalysis Journal 2:4–13.Google Scholar
Romero, T., Colmenares, F. & Aureli, F. (2009) Testing the function of reconciliation and third-party affiliation for aggressors in Hamadryas Baboons (Papio hamadryas hamadryas). American Journal of Primatology 71:60–69.Google Scholar
Schelling, T. (1960) The strategy of conflict. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Schumann, K. & Ross, M. (2010) The benefits, costs, and paradox of revenge. Social and Personality Psychology Compass 4(12):1193–205. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00322.xGoogle Scholar
Sell, A. (2011) The recalibrational theory and violent anger. Aggression and Violent Behavior 16(5):381–89.Google Scholar
Sell, A., Tooby, J. & Cosmides, L. (2009) Formidability and the logic of human anger. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 106(35):15073–78.Google Scholar
Seymour, B., Singer, T. & Dolan, R. J. (2007) The neurobiology of punishment. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 8:300–11.Google Scholar
Shinada, M., Yamagishi, T. & Ohmura, Y. (2004) False friends are worse than bitter enemies: “Altruistic” punishment of in-group members. Evolution and Human Behavior 25:379–93.Google Scholar
Silk, J. B. (1992) The patterning of intervention among male bonnet macaques: Reciprocity, revenge, and loyalty. Current Anthropology 33:318–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silk, J. B. (2002) The form and function of reconciliation in primates. Annual Review of Anthropology 31:21–44.Google Scholar
Silventoinen, K., Magnusson, P. K., Tynelius, P., Kaprio, J. & Rasmussen, F. (2008) Heritability of body size and muscle strength in young adulthood: A study of one million Swedish men. Genetic Epidemiology 32:341–49.Google Scholar
Singer, T., Seymour, B., O'Doherty, J. P., Stephan, K. E., Dolan, R. J. & Frith, C. D. (2006) Empathic neural responses are modulated by the perceived fairness of others. Nature 439:466–69.Google Scholar
Solomon, B. S., Bradshaw, C. P., Wright, J. & Cheng, T. L. (2008) Youth and parental attitudes toward fighting. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 23:544–60.Google Scholar
Speckhard, A. & Ahkmedova, K. (2006) The making of a martyr: Chechen suicide terrorism. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 29:429–92.Google Scholar
Sperber, D. (1994) The modularity of thought and the epidemiology of representations. In: Mapping the mind, ed. Hirschfeld, L. & Gelman, S., pp. 39–67. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Srivastava, J., Espinoza, F. & Fedorikhin, A. (2009) Coupling and decoupling of unfairness and anger in ultimatum bargaining. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 22:475–89.Google Scholar
Steger, M. F., Hicks, B. M., Kashdan, T. B., Krueger, R. F. & Bouchard, T. J. (2007) Genetic and environmental influences on the positive traits of the values in action classification, and biometric covariance with normal personality. Journal of Research in Personality 41:524–39.Google Scholar
Stewart, E. A., Schreck, C. J. & Simons, R. L. (2006) ‘I ain't gonna let no one disrespect me’: Does the code of the street reduce or increase violent victimization among African American adolescents? Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 43:427–58.Google Scholar
Struthers, C. W., Eaton, J., Santelli, A. G., Uchiyama, M. & Shirvani, N. (2008) The effects of attributions of intent and apology on forgiveness: When saying sorry might not help the story. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44:983–92.Google Scholar
Summerfield, D. (2002) Effects of war: Moral knowledge, revenge, reconciliation, and medicalised concepts of “recovery.” British Medical Journal 325:1105–107.Google Scholar
Tabak, B. A., McCullough, M. E., Luna, L. R., Bono, G. & Berry, J. W. (2012) Conciliatory gestures facilitate forgiveness and feelings of friendship by making transgressors appear more agreeable. Journal of Personality 80:503–36.Google Scholar
Tinbergen, N. (1963) On aims and methods of ethology. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 20:410–33.Google Scholar
Tooby, J. & Cosmides, L. (1990a) On the universality of human nature and the uniqueness of the individual: The role of genetics and adaptation. Journal of Personality 58:17–68.Google Scholar
Tooby, J. & Cosmides, L. (1992) The psychological foundations of culture. In: The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture, ed. Barkow, J., Cosmides, L. & Tooby, J., pp. 19–136. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Tooby, J. & Cosmides, L. (1996) Friendship and the Banker's Paradox: Other pathways to the evolution of adaptations for altruism. In: Evolution of social behaviour patterns in primates and man. Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. 88, ed. Runciman, W. G., Smith, J. M. & Dunbar, R. I. M., pp. 119–43. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Tooby, J. & Cosmides, L. (2008) The evolutionary psychology of the emotions and their relationship to internal regulatory variables. In: Handbook of emotions, 3rd edition, ed. Lewis, M., Haviland-Jones, J. M. & Barrett, L. F., pp. 114–37. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Tooby, J., Cosmides, L., Sell, A., Lieberman, D. & Sznycer, D. (2008) Internal regulatory variables and the design of human motivation: A computational and evolutionary approach. In: Handbook of approach and avoidance motivation, ed. Elliott, A., pp. 251–72. Erlbaum/Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1971) The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology 46(1):35–57.Google Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1974) Parent–offpspring conflict. American Zoologist 14:249–64.Google Scholar
Turkheimer, E. & Waldron, M. (2000) Nonshared environment: A theoretical, methodological, and quantitative review. Psychological Bulletin 126:78–108.Google Scholar
Uniacke, S. (2000) Why is revenge wrong? Journal of Value Inquiry 34:61–69.Google Scholar
Van Lange, P. A. M., Ouwerkerk, J. & Tazelaar, M. (2002) How to overcome the detrimental effects of noise in social interaction: The benefits of generosity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82:768–80.Google Scholar
van Schaik, C. P. & Aureli, F. (2000) The natural history of valuable relationships in primates. In: Natural conflict resolution, ed. Aureli, F. & de Waal, F. B. M., pp. 307–33. University of California Press.Google Scholar
Vossekuil, B., Fein, R. A., Reddy, M., Borum, R. & Modzeleski, W. (2002) The final report and findings of the Safe School Initiative: Implications for the prevention of school attacks in the United States. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education, Safe and Drug-Free Schools Program, and U.S. Secret Service, National Threat Assessment Center.Google Scholar
Walker, J. & Halloran, M. (2004) Rewards and sanctions and the provision of public goods in one-shot settings. Experimental Economics 7:235–47.Google Scholar
Watts, D. P. (1995) Post-conflict social events in wild mountain gorillas (Mammalia, Hominoidea) I. Social interactions between opponents. Ethology 100:139–57.Google Scholar
Watts, D. P. (2006) Conflict resolution in chimpanzees and the valuable-relationships hypothesis International Journal of Primatology 27:1337–64.Google Scholar
West, S. A., Griffin, A. S. & Gardner, A. (2007) Social semantics: Altruism, cooperation, mutualism, strong reciprocity, and group selection. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 20:415–32.Google Scholar
West, S. A., Mouden, C. E. & Gardner, A. (2011) Sixteen common misconceptions about the evolution of cooperation in humans. Evolution and Human Behavior 32:231–62.Google Scholar
Williams, G. C. (1966) Adaptation and natural selection: A critique of some current evolutionary thought. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Wilson, W. (1971) Reciprocation and other techniques for inducing cooperation. Journal of Conflict Resolution 15:167–96.Google Scholar
Worthington, E. L. Jr. (2005) More questions about forgiveness: Research agenda for 2005–2015. In: Handbook of forgiveness, ed. Worthington, E. L. Jr., pp. 557–73. Routledge.Google Scholar
Worthington, E. L. Jr. & DiBlasio, F. (1990) Promoting mutual forgiveness within the fractured relationship. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training 27:219–23.Google Scholar
Worthington, E. L. Jr., Witvliet, C. V. O., Pietrini, P. & Miller, A. J. (2007) Forgiveness, health, and well-being: A review of evidence for emotional versus decisional forgiveness, dispositional forgivingness, and reduced unforgiveness. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 30:291–302.Google Scholar
Wu, J. & Axelrod, R. (1995) How to cope with noise in the iterated prisoner's dilemma. Journal of Conflict Resolution 39:183–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, J.-J., Zhang, B.-Y., Zhou, Z.-X., He, Q.-Q., Zheng, X.-D., Cressman, R. & Tao, Y. (2009) Costly punishment does not always increase cooperation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 106:17448–451.Google Scholar
Yamagishi, T. (1986) The provision of a sanctioning system as a public good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51:110–16.Google Scholar
Yamagishi, T. (1988) Seriousness of social dilemmas and the provision of a sanctioning system. Social Psychology Quarterly 51:32–42.Google Scholar
Yamagishi, T., Horita, Y., Takagishi, H., Shinada, M., Tanida, S. & Cook, K. S. (2009) The private rejection of unfair offers and emotional commitment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 106:11520–23.Google Scholar
Zechmeister, J. S., Garcia, S., Romero, C. & Vas, S. N. (2004) Don't apologize unless you mean it: A laboratory investigation of forgiveness and retaliation. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 23:532–64.Google Scholar
Zillikens, M. C., Yazdanpanah, M., Pardo, L. M., Rivadeneira, F., Aulchenko, Y. S., Oostra, B. A., Uitterlinden, A. G., Pols, H. A. P. & van Duijn, C. M. (2008) Sex-specific genetic effects influence variation in body composition. Diabetologia 51:2233–41.Google Scholar