Within the last few years three key concerns have come to dominate the conservation-poverty debate: (1) the activities and accountability of big international conservation NGOs, and their impacts on local communities; (2) the increasingly protectionist focus of conservation policy and the implications for communities resident in and around protected areas, in particular regarding involuntary displacements and evictions; (3) the lack of attention to biodiversity conservation on the development agenda, with the current focus on poverty reduction. The roots of these different strands of the debate lie in much older discussions of the links between environment and development. There have been periods of convergence, especially around issues of sustainable development, participation and decentralization during the 1980s and 1990s. There have also been periods of divergence, in particular the disenchantment with community-based approaches to conservation and the prioritization of poverty over environment, during the 1990s and 2000s. Reactions to the outcomes of the 2003 World Parks Congress brought the three strands of the modern debate to a head. Ongoing discussions around these strands continue at a different pace but the debate appears to be moving fastest on biodiversity's place within the development agenda, although concerns over biodiversity remain marginal compared to the current focus on climate change. But it is within the climate change agenda, and particularly the escalation of discussions around reduced emissions from deforestation, that the next formulations of the conservation-poverty debate are likely to develop.

Polar bears Ursus maritimus have a circumpolar distribution that is directly tied to the Arctic sea ice. Although they are wide-ranging, polar bears do not belong to a single population but rather are comprised of 19 largely discrete subpopulations, 13 of which are fully or partly under Canadian jurisdiction. These subpopulations are used to manage the sustainable harvest of polar bears in Canada but for conservation purposes the species is currently considered a single biological unit. Long-term climate warming has reduced the availability of sea ice that polar bears require for feeding, movement and reproduction, and continued declines in ice extent and duration are forecast to have significant negative effects on polar bears in some areas. Under the Canadian Species at Risk Act separate legal protection may be given to intraspecific groups (so called designatable units, DUs) that are genetically, geographically and/or biogeographically distinct. We examined the conservation status of polar bears across their Canadian range and compared large-scale ecosystem properties across subpopulations. We found that threats to the conservation of polar bears are not spatially uniform and we identified five DUs that captured broad patterns of polar bear biodiversity. We conclude that the use of DUs provides a biologically-sound framework for the conservation of polar bears.

In this paper we provide an empirically-based way to address the general question of the broad-scale spatial relationship between poverty occurrence and areas of interest to those seeking conservation of large wild areas. We address the question of the spatial relationship between poor people and areas less impacted by human activity by asking three questions about the global spatial relationship between poor people and ecological intactness and how it varies by major biome and geographical region. We use infant mortality rate as a proxy for poverty and the Human Footprint as a proxy for ecological intactness, comparing global terrestrial maps of both. The analysis shows that the vast majority of the world's poor people live in extremely urban and very transformed (peri-transformed) areas. Only a small percentage of the world's most poor are found in areas that are somewhat or extremely wild: about 0.25% of the world's population. This fact has implications for the calls being made for conservation organizations to undertake poverty alleviation, suggesting that at a global scale those groups with interest in conserving wild areas would be able to contribute little to globally significant poverty alleviation efforts. However, these conservation groups are well positioned to develop new partnerships for delivery of benefits to some of the least accessible poor people in the wildest places of the world.

The ability to measure and demonstrate the impact of conservation interventions is critical for management, accountability, and lesson-learning, yet most organizations struggle to implement appropriate, effective monitoring and evaluation. This is particularly so for community-based projects and livelihoods-focused interventions that require the use of social science methods unfamiliar to most conservation biologists. Quantitative surveys and indicator-based approaches are commonly used but are limited in their utility, and ignore a wealth of potentially valuable qualitative and anecdotal information on impact and change. Here we describe a method for standardizing the collection and analysis of stories of change that originated in, and is commonly employed by, the development sector. Trials of the use of the Most Significant Change method in a range of Fauna & Flora International's partnership projects revealed not only its value as a monitoring tool alongside more familiar surveys and quantitative data collection but also as a participatory management tool that improved staff capacity and project adaptive management and responsiveness. Although initially time-consuming to establish and implement, it has been embraced by these projects as a beneficial addition to monitoring and evaluation. The consequent interest it has raised amongst other conservation practitioners suggests that it warrants further testing and application. Conservationists would do well to learn from the tools and experiences of the development sector when exploring the social impacts of conservation projects.

Biodiversity conservation is increasingly expected to reduce poverty where the two coincide. Yet conservation and poverty are multifaceted concepts and the linkages between them are complex and variable; whether and how conservation contributes to poverty reduction in practice will depend on the specific nature of those linkages. To unravel this complexity we explored the portfolio of Fauna & Flora International, an international conservation organization operating in some of the poorest countries and regions. We examined reports from 88 projects and categorized the rationales, approaches and outcomes of a sample of 34 livelihoods-focused projects. Rationales varied among and within projects and included apparent ‘win-win’ scenarios (reducing poverty improves conservation outcomes), trade-offs (conservation action hurts the poor or poverty reduction damages biodiversity), and situations where livelihoods interventions were not directly linked to conservation gains. Projects revealed a balance of direct (income, food security, health) and indirect (capacity building, reduced vulnerability, governance, empowerment) livelihood goals. Overall, empowerment, security and social network development were more significant short-term outcomes than income generation. Social responsibility was widely embedded but does not necessarily translate into a positive impact on poverty. Conservation organizations have the potential to improve the lives of the poor in many places where they operate, and arguably a duty to ensure that conservation does not make poor people worse off. Yet it is important to be clear about the reasons for engaging and the scope and scale of likely outcomes.

In the recent past many international conservation institutions, including the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), have addressed the relationship between their work and poverty. The empirical evidence suggests that while it is not the case that large numbers of the global poor are engaged in trading CITES-listed species, in particular cases the trade in such species may be important to the livelihoods of the poor at the local level. The approach of CITES to poverty issues has evolved over time. Prompted in part by their experience of the trade in Harpagophytum spp. the Parties to CITES, at the last two meetings of the Conference of the Parties, adopted decisions that accepted an obligation to take into account the impacts of CITES listings on the livelihoods of the poor and initiated a process to assist countries that wish to do this. These decisions, while respecting the primary focus of the CITES Convention on conservation, have some affinities with the ‘Do no harm’ approach to the livelihoods of the poor. The process will produce guidelines and rapid assessment tools. If these guidelines and tools are to be effective they will need to take account of the context-specific nature of solutions in this area. The CITES case provides lessons for other international conservation institutions whose activities affect the livelihoods of the poor at the local level.

The Green Corridor of Argentina and Brazil is the largest forest remnant of the Upper Paraná Atlantic Forest. The jaguar population of this region is highly fragmented and reduced. To assess the status of the subpopulation of jaguars of the Green Corridor we conducted four camera-trap surveys in three sites with different levels of protection. At Urugua-í (34 stations, 1,495 trap-days) we recorded one individual (minimum density = 0.12–0.33 per 100 km2). At Yabotí Biosphere Reserve (42 stations, 1,871 trap-days) we recorded two individuals (minimum density = 0.11–0.25 per 100 km2). At Iguazú National Park we conducted two surveys. In 2004 (39 stations, 1,839 trap-days) we recorded four adult individuals, estimating a density of between 0.49 ± 0.16 and 1.07 ± 0.33 per 100 km2. In 2006, we increased the area sampled (47 stations, 2,059 trap-days) and recorded 11 adult individuals, estimating a density of 0.93 ± 0.2 to 1.74 ± 0.34 per 100 km2. These density estimates are the lowest recorded for the species. Estimates for Iguazú are between 2–7.5 times lower than those reported in the early 1990s. This population decline probably results from the interaction of several factors, including lack of prey as a result of poaching and persecution. We estimate that there is currently a population of 25–53 adult jaguars in the Green Corridor. In spite of having sufficient potential habitat available this population is threatened and urgent conservation action is required.

The grey-winged cotinga Tijuca condita was first described in 1980 from an old specimen, misidentified as a congener. Field observations came later, from two remote, high-elevation forests in the mountains of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Both involved only a few pairs of birds at best, making this species one of the least known in the world. Accurately defining the locations this species inhabits is an obvious prerequisite for designing conservation strategies to protect it. Using remotely sensed data on elevation and forest cover we mapped this species’ habitat and predicted six more sites where it may occur. Field surveys confirmed two of them, doubling the known range of the species. The two easternmost predicted sites did not contain the species but these areas have less annual rainfall than other sites, which may explain the absences. This research serves as an important guide to conservation actions, for it uncovered biologically important areas for this species that had been previously overlooked. It has also measured the remaining habitat of the species so that any future losses can be detected.

Increasing rates of habitat loss and human occupation are creating demands for optimum strategies that maximize conservation efforts, despite the lack of detailed data required for implementation. Broad scale biogeographical data may furnish initial guidelines for conservation planning in a hierarchical framework for establishing conservation priorities and helping guide future research programmes. This approach may be critical in regions for which few detailed data on diversity, abundance and distribution are available, such as in the Cerrado biome of central Brazil. We used a macroecological approach, based on the extent of occurrence of 127 species of terrestrial vertebrates endemic to the Cerrado, to design a regional network of potential areas that represent all species at least once. The final network has a total of 24 regions widely distributed throughout the biome. We also evaluated these regions in terms of their human occupation by adding a cost for each cell based on 23 variables expressing variation in agricultural, demographic and cattle-ranching patterns on the Cerrado. Our analyses showed that conservation efforts should be concentrated in the south and south-east of the biome. This macroecological approach can provide broad guidelines for conservation and define the focus for more local and realistic conservation efforts.

Many of Madagascar's endemic chameleon species have restricted ranges and require relatively intact forest for survival but information on their response to habitat degradation is generally lacking, especially in western deciduous forests. We assessed the abundance and density of endemic chameleons from nocturnal surveys of roosting animals in Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha in western Madagascar. We found 444 Brookesia brygooi, 192 B. perarmata, 98 B. exarmata, 22 Furcifer nicosiai and two F. cf. petteri. The highest pooled density was for B. brygooi (53.2 ha-1), followed by B. perarmata (29.2 ha-1) and B. exarmata (18.7 ha-1). B. brygooi was ubiquitous, with the highest density and abundance in the disturbed Ankazomanga forest outside the Park, where the similarly sized B. perarmata was absent. B. perarmata, a species endemic to the Park, was abundant in three of the five survey sites, especially where there was a well-developed leaf litter and understorey. B. exarmata, a species endemic to the Bemaraha plateau, was associated with an open understorey and small protrusions of limestone karst. Spatial variation in the density of B. perarmata is an important consideration when interpreting monitoring data and this species is a conservation priority because of its restricted distribution and apparent sensitivity to forest degradation.

The Endangered Madagascar giant jumping rat, Hypogeomys antimena, has suffered a major decline in distribution and is now restricted to two seemingly unconnected sub-populations in the largest remaining fragment of deciduous, seasonally dry forest in Menabe, western Madagascar. In a previous study a rapid decrease in numbers of H. antimena was observed in relatively intact forest, suggesting a factor of population decline additional to habitat loss, and provoking fears of a negative trend occurring across its remaining range. In the current study we conducted extensive line transect surveys to estimate active H. antimena burrow density in 2004 and 2005 as an index of population size, and trapping to estimate mean group size, as a multiplier for population size estimation. Within the surveyed areas we estimated the combined size of the two H. antimena sub-populations in 2005 to be c. 36,000, considerably larger than previously assumed. There was no evidence that active burrow density across the species’ known range changed between 2000 and 2005. H. antimena was not uniformly distributed, with higher densities of active burrows found in forest with the highest canopy in areas furthest from forest edges. These core forest areas are vital for the species’ conservation and the recent declaration that the Menabe forest will receive statutory protection provides hope that H. antimena may be safeguarded. However, given its restricted range and low reproductive output, among other factors, H. antimena remains threatened and requires close future monitoring.

Dupont's lark Chersophilus duponti was categorized globally as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List in 2005, largely because of reported declines in Spain and an estimated population of 2,000–3,000 breeding pairs in Morocco. However, the range and size of the species' North African populations were still unknown, despite being critical for assessment of the species' global conservation status. Here we report on the breeding distribution of Dupont's lark in Morocco, probably the largest population in its North African range, as well as on its preferred habitat, population density and size. Fieldwork and analysis of satellite images were combined to locate suitable habitat for the species, assess its presence (eliciting territorial calls by broadcasting the males’ songs and calls), and estimate densities using 83 km of linear censuses. Total number of birds located was 461 (305 from song playback and 156 from transects) across an extent of occurrence of c. 11,000 km2, comprising 2,067 km2 of suitable habitat and an effective area of occupancy of 1,645 km2. Mean density was 0.60 ± SD 0.52 birds per 10 ha and was highest in dense stands of Stipa tennacissima. Our estimate of Dupont's lark breeding population in Morocco is c. 15,400 singing males (lower and upper limits 11,220–20,167, respectively). Evidence of habitat loss and degradation was found in one of the main areas of the species' distribution in Morocco, although this does not seem to be a general pattern in the lark's Moroccan range. Further studies are required of the dynamics of suitable habitat for the species to prevent long-term consequences for the conservation of Dupont's lark and other bird species of the steppe.

Seventeen protected areas in south-east Thailand were surveyed for the Endangered pileated gibbon Hylobates pileatus during April 2004–March 2005, with the objectives of establishing the species’ current distribution, obtaining approximate population estimates for the largest forest areas, and assessing threats to the species’ survival. Landsat images and a geographical information system were used to identify the remaining suitable habitat within the species’ range. We conducted auditory surveys to census the gibbon populations in the five largest protected areas of Khao Yai, Pang Sida, and Tab Lan National Parks, and Khao Soi Dao and Khao Ang Ru Nai Wildlife Sanctuaries. Small protected areas within the range of the pileated gibbon (five parks and seven sanctuaries) were also evaluated, using questionnaires and interviews with local staff and villagers. Approximately 3,800 km2 of suitable canopy forest with an estimated 3,000 breeding groups, containing c. 12,000 individuals, remain within the four largest areas of forest. Pileated gibbons are also still present in 10 of the smaller protected areas. The largest populations of pileated gibbon in Thailand should be viable over the long-term provided that hunting, habitat degradation and further fragmentation are controlled. Hunting is now the most significant problem, and gibbon densities are well below the carrying capacity of the habitat and declining. As patrolling is not sufficiently effective to control poaching, the cooperation and support of local villagers must be sought in future conservation efforts.

Wild lesser rheas were studied during two reproductive seasons (2004–2005 and 2005–2006) in three adjacent ranches in Argentine Patagonia. These ranches differed in hunting pressure and egg harvest (protected, moderate and intensive use of the species), and livestock grazing conditions (with and without overgrazing). Density of individuals and nests, clutch size, brood size, hatching success, chick survival and recruitment rate were estimated in each area. At the ranch with intense hunting pressure, egg harvesting and livestock grazing, density of lesser rheas was the lowest and reproductive events were not recorded. None of the recorded demographic parameters differed significantly between the ranch where the species is protected and there is low livestock grazing intensity and the ranch where there is moderate use of the species and intensive grazing. Our work suggests that intense hunting and egg harvesting would have stronger effects than overgrazing on the density and reproductive success of wild lesser rhea populations in Patagonia.

The Hispaniolan solenodon Solenodon paradoxus, one of only two surviving native Hispaniolan land mammals, has declined drastically in Haiti and has only been recorded from the Duchity region of the Massif de la Hotte in recent decades. Previous studies have been pessimistic about the probability of even short-term survival of this relict population, predicting its likely extinction by the start of the 21st century because of a range of anthropogenic threats. However, new surveys (sign surveys and interviews with villagers and subsistence farmers) and the discovery of three dead solenodons confirm the continued survival of the species in the Duchity region, apparently across a greater geographic area than previously recognized. This may reflect a cull on dogs around the Duchity region. Given the lack of any targeted mammal conservation research in Haiti for almost 2 decades, immediate further investigation is required into solenodon distribution, habitat utilization, density, and interaction with introduced predators across the region. The solenodons of the Massif de la Hotte may represent a distinct taxon, making the establishment of an effective research and conservation programme for this population an urgent priority.