Participation in the First Crusade (1095–1099) and the subsequent campaigns associated with the crusading movement granted significant spiritual and temporal rewards to the crusaders, and in some cases these privileges even extended to the crusaders’ families. The question of what motivated the crusaders has long attracted considerable attention in scholarship, particularly focusing on the offer of remission of sins and how far the idea of material gain entered the equation. The papacy put mechanisms in place to defend the crusaders’ persons, families, and possessions. Crusaders were entitled to trial in an ecclesiastical court and cases affecting them could be either hastened or delayed to take their crusader status into account. These elements must also have played a role in the decision to go on crusade.

Taking the cross was an expensive enterprise that required plentiful supplies, horses, chainmail, and weapons; allowing for disparities in rank and means the cost of the crusade was between two and five times a crusader's annual income. Charters and chronicles provide numerous examples of crusaders mortgaging or selling their land to pay their way on crusade; Duke Robert of Normandy famously mortgaged his duchy to his brother the king of England for 10,000 marks and the monks of Fleury melted two silver candlesticks worth thirty marks and a censor valued at over eight marks of gold to meet King Louis VII of France's demands for funds to help finance the Second Crusade. Renouncing unfair rights, customs, and exactions was a common means of attaining more modest sums; for example, Nivelo of Fréteval abandoned his practice of seizing the goods of the inhabitants of St Peter of Chartres in return for ten pounds towards his crusade expenses. Others either mortgaged their claims to tithes, market justice rights, and advocacies or sold possessions such as mills, fiefs, or serfs outright. The financing of a crusade was often a family enterprise centred on maximising the value of available resources and minimising the impact of crusade on the family coffers. Aware of the high material costs associated with crusading, the papacy also attempted to offset some of these expenses by exempting crusaders from taxation and interest on their loans, and allowing them to mortgage their lands and moveable property to raise the requisite funds.

My Lorde

When you were lately in London, you were very earnest with me to provide you a yongue Divine, learned and sober, to be in house with you; your Lordship pressed this Suit upon me very earnestly, protesting you would allow him thirty or forty poundes per Annum. And require noe more Service of him, but Prayers in your family, and to preach once a fortnight dureing the Summer tyme, when you should be absent from Dublin. My lord I knew well what it was to send, a yongue, deserveing man from his frends and his hopes here, into those partes, And did assure my Selfe (as I found it) noe man would accept the offer, but such a one as was pinched with some wants. Yet being carefull to satisfye the earnestnesse of your desires I prevayled with Mr Croxton to Adventure himself upon the Journey, and the Service, And was faine to furnish him with some money my Selfe, that he might be able to undertake it. The man I dare boldly say, is beyond exception for life and learning, and willing enough to undergo the Service, soe he might put himself from the want he suffered, into hope of meanes. And if your lordship had not a reall purpose to performe your promise to him of thirty pounds a year at least, till you should furnish him with a Competent liveing; you might have found some other man in England, whom you might have sett on worke to provide you a Scholler, whom it seemes you meant not to provide for, when you had gotten him thither, which must needs be a dishonour to me, and a great dishartning to the poore yongue man, who hath been sent from one hard fortune into another. I heard a good while since he was placed in the Colledge where I knewe he could not possibly have meanes to maintaine himself unlesse you allowed it him, which I veryly thought you did, and soe rested satisfyed, the yongue Man never makeing any Complaint upon me; But at last inquireing after him, (as I tooke my selfe bound to doe, haveing put him upon the Service) I found your Lordship looked little after him, and did lesse for him, some little money being lent rather then given him to supply present wants.

Salutem in Christo

My very good Lord

I am informed that the Rectory of Hisham within your Lordships Diocess is likely to be voyde. I am likewise credibly informed that his Majesty hath a very good Title to the same. These are therfore hartily to pray your Lordship that you will be pleasd to take care that noe man be admitted by you into this Livinge in praejudice of his Majestys said Right, and that you will likewise give me notice soe soone as this Benefice shall fall voyde, that I may acquaint his Majesty accordingly and knowe his further pleasure. Soe not doubting of your wonted kindnes herein I leave you to Gods blessed protection and rest

Your Lordships very lovinge Freind and Brother.

W: Cant:

Croyden. August. 18 1638

To the right Reverend Father in God my very good Lord and Brother the Lord Bishop of Chester. these

Salutem in Christo

My very good Lord.

I thanke you for the large, and faire accompt which you have given me in your late Letters, of Church Affaires. As for Downe, and Conner, I have often times heard of great inconformity there, and I perceive now ‘tis true; but if my Lord hold constant (as I know he will) to his resolution, and you to the exequution of it, that busynesse will be better master’d, then ‘ere it was, and their long Table of Good fellowship, a little reformed.

I am glad your owne diocess gives you such content; and that you are like to advance and settle it to more proffitt, and make an open way, for my Lord Primate and some other Bishopps. But I must tell you, Wee heare, like not that branch of the Act of Parliament for 60 yeares, and have reduced it to 21 noe body giving me notice, till your letters came, and with the latest, that this was ordered in regard of Plantation, and that, according to the concession of Kinge James.

I am very glad, soe many men as you mention, are soe willing to be either free, or reasonable in the restitution of Impropriations. Yet as well as I like both the restitution itself, and the Act that is made for it, I pray God it be well fenced, in some circumstances; else it may give a great blowe to some of your Bishoprickes, and by way of example, quite undoe some of the best of ours. I shall take the best care I can, if it be not to late. As for my Lord Cromwell, I am sorry, his agent hath dealt soe untowardly in this busynesse. I see that Lord seldome, but if it be my good hap to meet with him, I will doe the best service I can in the busynesse. .

Mr Atturney

Whereas the Vicaridge of All hallowes in or neere the Towne of Hertford in the county of Herfordshire is nowe void beinge of his Majesties presentation, and of the value of 10li 8s 6d. And whereas John Harison Esq patron of the Vicaridge of St John the Evangelist in the same Towne (beinge of soe small value that it is not taxed in his Majesties booke of first fruits) hath consented that the said Two Vicaridges should be united and converted into one Ecclesiasticall benefice, and that one meete person might hold them both (by the name of the Vicaridge of All hallowes Hertford with the Vicaridge of St John the Evangelist annexed) with all Tythes, fruits, Rents, oblations howses Glebe Lands rights and emoluments to them belonginge, Savinge to the said John Harrison and his heires power to present to the same Vicaridges united every Third turne hereafter uppon voidance. His Majesties pleasure is That you prepare a Bill for his Signature conteininge his Majesties assent to an Union of the said Vicaridges accordinge to Lawe, with a grant to the said John Harrison and his heires of the presentment to the said Vicaridges united every 3 Turne to be holden in Sorradge his Majestie beinge to have the nowe 2 first presentations with all such necessary grants and provisions as you shall thinke meete, for which this shall be your warrant.

W: Cant:

December 10. 1638

The factory imperative

Fully developed factories were late to arrive in this most advanced of industries. Textile engineering before 1820 was characterized by flexible specialization and an ‘ever-changing assortment of semi-customized products’. In this it resembled the metal trades of Sheffield or the west Midlands, which took a middle path in workshop scale, contracted out certain processes, and adopted division of labour as far as was practical. In 1850, still many small establishments offered useful specialisms and extra capacity, co-existing alongside vast and sophisticated engineering factories. Large did not imply inflexible; indeed British engineers were later criticized for being over-flexible, too willing to offer tailored products rather than, more efficiently and profitably, well-defined ranges.

The rise of the engineering factory followed closely upon a series of breakthroughs in machine-tool technology between 1815 and 1830. From relying heavily on manual dexterity in 1800, textile engineering had by 1840 advanced to a point where machines made machines. Key breakthroughs were to the lathe and planer. Particularly significant was the work of Roberts and Whitworth, who, said William Fairbairn, made ‘new and more perfect tool machinery, which has given not only mathematical precision, but almost a creative power – as one machine creates another’. But process mechanization did not in itself make factories inevitable. Many of the new machine tools could be accommodated in existing workshops. The systems serving machinemakers for 40 or 50 years still presented advantages, optimizing the use of labour, with subcontractors and casual staff working intensively or otherwise, according to demand. Even after 1840, the small workshop sector employed large numbers on jobbing and repair work, or other tasks or products outside machine-making's mainstream.

By about 1820, though, the industry's leading lights were moving to factories. Economics decided it, the prospect of enhancing quality and efficiency. Engineering – unlike textiles – never required a vast, unwieldy and fragile outwork system, nor was it much troubled by labour discipline and embezzlement. For engineers, moving into a factory actually demanded more of management. They must assume quality and training responsibilities previously dealt with by subcontractors, and learn to supervise a large workforce and address skill shortages.

Salutem in Christo

Mye verye good Lord:

I hope you have receaved mye hastye Leters from Whit-Hall, they Could not express much they wear soe suddenlye called for; and mye minde soe much upon the promise of your lardge Leters to come, that I made short worke of them. Since, you have kept your promise; and your Lordships Leters ar lardge indeed, but every lyne of them welcome.

Especiallye your Noble and frendlye advice touchinge Dr Hooke. For himselfe I have knowne hime longer then I thinke your lordship hath. His parts be verye good, but if they be better than himselfe, he must needs be the worss bye them. Howe he stands in his own Innocencye I doe not knowe, thiss I knowe he is fowlye be-daubed bye reports; which if in the issue they prove slaunders ‘tis happye for hime, and a greate blessinge of God upon hime; if otherwise he is lost forever. I remember Sir Edward Cooks Rule well. And you maye nowe see what tyme is lost, and what it is to loose is.

I enquyre not after Mr Smart, but I heare casually that the Judges have sent hime backe to prison and will not meddle with hime. He that told me thiss was a verye wagge. For withall he asked me thiss question, wheather I thought the Judges would have done soe if hee had not beene degraded first. your Lordship maye see bye thiss, all men looke upon us and some make sport. In the meane tyme God had need preserve his church bye Miracle: For your Lordship sees whoe pull downe all goverment; I would to God I would see some hartye in the holdinge of it up.

I am glad your Lordship was so kinde as to Visit mye Lords Grace at Byshopsthorp, but sorye you finde hime complaininge of a colde in the Neck. I remember his Grace once complaind to me of it, before his goinge downe. If his bathing in hott graines (For you saye he hath great Confidence in that tubb) doe hime good, its well. A faire Medicine it is, but I for mye part beleeve more in the heat then in the graines: though I confess the grains ar liklye to be fyne supple meanes to applye, and conserve that heat.

Concerning the Tombe erected by the Earle of Corke I shall say very little to your Grace at this Tyme. Partly because I gave answeare to the same thing in my last letters to you, in which I allsoe mentioned that which I have now written of the Chancellorshipp of the University, And partly because I have now written againe to my Lord Archbishop of Dublin, whose letters are all most verbatim with these of your Graces concerning this Argument. And I made Choyce to write at lardg rather to him then to you, at this tyme, both because I had given him a former answeare, and because there are some passadges in his letter more then in yours.

And for the thing it self I am clearly satisfyed the East window is not darkened, by the Monument. But that the Place of the high Altar was not at the East End of the Quire in that Cathedrall as well as the rest I must confesse is newes to me for as yet I never knew that it stood any where els in any. For the other Circumstances, If the building of a skreen before it and placeing the Communion Table there will take off no roome from the Quire, and leave the Monument to be an ornament to that Church, It is much better then it hath been reported to me. But then, whether it be soe or noe, neither my Lord of Corke, nor your Grace can expect that I who never saw it can make my selfe Judge, but doe wholly leave it to such view and Consideration as shall be found fitting upon the place. With this wish, that the Earle of Corke had erected it in some fitt place upon the Side of the Quire, or elswhere, which would have been all one for the Preservation of his owne memory, or of any other Honourable Personages, And been free from the Dispute and Quarrell, to which it is now subiect; and the more, because that Great Earle is generally thought here, to have been very bold with the Patrimony of the Church: Noe good Signe of Religion be his Profession what it will.

Salutem in Christo.

Mye verye good Lord

Your Letters of the 13th of March, signifyed that your Lordship would be here some time in Aprill. And because that drewe neere, and your Lordships Letters requirde noe other answere but thankes for all your honourable favor to the Church and your love to me, I thought it best to putt it of till your comeing to Court. But now haveing receivd your second Letters of the last of March, I thought fitt to answere both together, lest your Lordship should thinke me either disrespectfull of your selfe, or careles of the cause.

And now my Lord to your first Letter, I give you hearty thankes for the Bishops, and some other grave Divines that are made Justices of the Peace, in their severall Diocesses or Countyes where they live. I hope the King shall have as much Service, as the Church honor, by it.

I am glad that the Kings Advocate will forbeare the word Presbiterie. And though the 21st of March were past, yet I doe not finde by your second Letters that my Lord of St. Andrews and your Lordship, are agreed upon the Rentall of the Priory. And I remember I was able to tell your Lordship att your late being heere, that I thought my Lord of St. Andrews his valuation therof, would fall much short of your Lordships hopes, and soe I see you now find it. Therefore to this, I shall say nothing, till your Lordship having viewd it upon the Place, and considered all Circumstances, be returnd hither with the valuation. And I am sorry, if my Lord Register his hasty comeing to Court, have prevented his ioyneing with your Lordship in the valuation of the Priory; but it must be as it may.

I thanke your Lordship heartily for your Care of those poor men of his Majesties Chappell Royall, and rest satisfyed, that in your noblenes you will give them the soonest releefe you cann.