In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the terrain of the diplomatic and security landscape of Southern Africa shifted dramatically. South Africa declared various Bantustans “independent,” but they were not recognized by other countries. Small regional states like Lesotho increasingly took more combative diplomatic stances, aided by Cold War connections and, in this case, a local border dispute. This article examines a proposed ski resort that South Africa wanted to build in the QwaQwa Bantustan on Lesotho's border starting in 1975. Because of Lesotho's diplomatic and military escalation, the Khoptjoane resort was never built, but the lengthy dispute contributed to the sidelining of the apartheid regime's diplomats in favor of its securocrats. Thus, we argue the failed ski resort contributed to the atmosphere in which Pretoria greenlit the Maseru Massacre of 1982, presaging the apartheid regime's increased 1980s willingness to use its military superiority against township residents and Southern African neighbors alike.

Governments — Recognition — Rival governments — Venezuela — Disputed 2018 Venezuelan presidential election — Whether Mr Maduro or Mr Guaidó President of Venezuela — Whether Maduro Board or Guaidó Board entitled to give instructions on behalf of Central Bank of Venezuela concerning its assets in England

Recognition — Whom United Kingdom Government recognizing as Head of State and Head of Government of Venezuela — Whether United Kingdom Foreign Secretary’s statement constituting unequivocal recognition of Mr Guaidó as Interim President — Whether United Kingdom Government’s recognition of Mr Guaidó de facto or de jure — “One voice” doctrine — Whether English courts obliged to accept United Kingdom Government’s recognition of Mr Guaidó as conclusive — Foreign act of State doctrine — Whether challenges to validity, under Venezuelan law, of the Transition Statute 2019 and Mr Guaidó’s appointments justiciable in English courts — Whether English courts should recognize judgments of the Supreme Tribunal of Justice of Venezuela nullifying the Transition Statute 2019 — Whether such recognition contravening UK public policy

Diplomatic relations — Whether United Kingdom Government’s continued diplomatic relations with Mr Maduro’s representatives in England constituting implied recognition of Mr Maduro as de facto President — Whether Court of Appeal erred in introducing concept of implied de facto recognition — Whether scope for application of any notion of implied recognition by English courts — The law of England

Diplomatic relations — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 (“VCDR”) — Article 1(i) — Definition of “premises of the mission” — Circumstances under which a building may acquire status of “premises of the mission” under Article 1(i) of VCDR — Whether consent of receiving State necessary for a property to become “premises of the mission” pursuant to Article 1(i) of VCDR

Treaties — Interpretation — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 — Article 1(i) — Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1969 (“VCLT”) — Customary rules of treaty interpretation — Ordinary meaning — Context — Comparison with VCDR provisions concerning the treatment of diplomatic personnel — Object and purpose — Relevance of VCDR’s preamble to determining its object and purpose — VCDR founded on mutuality and respect between sovereign equals — Whether State practice in relation to the recognition of diplomatic status of premises amounting to subsequent practice within meaning of Article 31(3)(b) of VCLT — Article 1(i) of VCDR requiring the actual use of a building for it to qualify as “premises of the mission” — A receiving State may object to the sending State’s designation of “premises of the mission” — Objection had to be timely, non-arbitrary and non-discriminatory

Diplomatic relations — Diplomats — Diplomats’ children — Serious concerns about welfare of children — Immunity — Immunity from civil proceedings — Whether diplomatic immunity preventing local authority from seeking interim care orders — Diplomatic Privileges Act 1964 — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 — Whether diplomatic immunity subject to prohibition on torture and inhuman and degrading treatment or punishment

Human rights — European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Article 3 — Inhuman and degrading treatment or punishment — Human Rights Act 1998 — Diplomatic immunity — Relationship between prohibition on torture and inhuman and degrading treatment or punishment and diplomatic immunity — Whether diplomatic immunity preventing local authority from seeking interim care order — Whether failure to protect children a breach of European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Whether taking action to protect children a breach of Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 — Declaration of incompatibility

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Treaties — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 — Diplomatic Privileges Act 1964 — Diplomatic immunity — European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 — Serious concerns about welfare of diplomat’s children — Relationship between diplomatic immunity and human rights — Whether Diplomatic Privileges Act 1964 and Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 incompatible with Human Rights Act 1998 and European Convention on Human Rights, 1950

Treaties — Interpretation — Context and purpose — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 — United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 — European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Whether Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 disturbed by provisions of United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 — Whether conflict between Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 and European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — The law of England

The Middle East conflict has been identified as one of the most polarizing issues in the history of foreign relations of Nigeria during the First Republic (1960–6). The Christian-majority southern regions supported close relations with Israel, while the Muslim-majority Northern Region aligned with Arab states. The Sardauna Ahmadu Bello, Premier of the Northern Region, is remembered as particularly hostile to Israeli incursions in Nigeria. Reviewing new evidence from the Israel State Archives, this article introduces more complexity into portrayals of the Sardauna's positions. Contending with the enormous challenges of decolonization, the Sardauna continually vacillated in his approach to Middle East relations, weighing opportunities against drawbacks in establishing ties. Examining the more accommodating approach that the Sardauna adopted beyond the public eye, we gain new insights into his attempts to achieve political and economic objectives with regard to the Northern Region, while navigating the contentious political landscape of Nigeria's First Republic.

State immunity — Enforcement — Property — Bank accounts of a diplomatic mission of a foreign State — Embassy of Indian Republic — Distinction between immunity of a foreign State from jurisdiction and immunity from enforcement — Whether bank accounts exempt from enforcement jurisdiction of Czech Republic

Diplomatic relations — Immunity — Property — Bank accounts of a diplomatic mission of a foreign State — Indian Republic Embassy in Prague — Whether bank accounts exempt from enforcement jurisdiction of Czech Republic — Czech Act on Private International Law — United Nations Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Property, 2004, Articles 19(c) and 21(1)(a) — Whether bank accounts used exclusively in performance of function of diplomatic mission — Whether bank accounts could be attached in an execution — Whether decision of lower courts correct — The law of the Czech Republic

State immunity — Jurisdiction — Property — Functional nature of immunity — Acta jure imperii and acta jure gestionis — Immunity confined to acta jure imperii — Failure of lower courts to take this limitation into account — Premises of a diplomatic mission — Korean Embassy in Prague — Whether Republic of Korea immune from proceedings in Czech courts

Diplomatic relations — Immunity — Property — Korean Embassy in Prague — Whether Republic of Korea immune from proceedings in Czech courts — Whether Korean Embassy unjustly enriched — Whether immovable property used for purposes of State’s diplomatic mission — Inviolability of premises of diplomatic mission and performance of mission’s functions — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961, Article 22 — United Nations Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Property, 2004, Article 13 — Whether first instance decision correct — The law of the Czech Republic

State immunity — Head of State immunity — Waiver of immunity — Wardship proceedings involving children of ruler of sovereign State — Ruler of sovereign State seeking orders for return of children — Ruler of sovereign State offering assurances of future conduct — Ruler waiving immunity in respect of enforcement of any orders to be made in proceedings — Whether waiver effective — Consequences of waiving personal immunity before State courts — Immunity of State property

Diplomatic relations — Diplomatic assurances — Weight of diplomatic assurances in domestic courts — Wardship proceedings involving children of ruler of sovereign State — Ruler of sovereign State seeking orders for return of children — Ruler of sovereign State offering assurances of future conduct — Whether assurances providing protection for children from risk of abduction — Whether enforceable in event of breach of any order made — Withdrawal of assurances — Consequences of withdrawal — The law of England

We apply variations and extensions of structural balance theory to analyze the dynamics of geopolitical relations using data from the virtual world Eve Online. The highly detailed data enable us to study the interplay of alliance size, power, and geographic proximity on the prevalence and conditional behavior of triads built from empirical political alliances. Through our analysis, we reveal the degree to which the behaviors of players conform to the predictions of structural balance theory and whether our augmentations of the theory improve these predictions. In addition to studying the time series of the proportions of triad types, we investigate the conditional changes in triad types and the formation of polarized political coalitions. We find that player behavior largely conforms to the predictions of a multipolar version of structural balance theory that separates strong and weak configurations of balanced and frustrated triads. The high degree of explanatory power of structural balance theory in this context provides strong support for both the theory and the use of virtual worlds in social science research.