We focus on the statistics of SOC-related solar flare parameters in soft X-ray wavelengths, including their size and waiting time distributions. An early SOC model assumed a linear increase of the energy storage, but this pioneering model is not consistent with the expected correlation between the waiting time interval and the subsequently dissipated energy. The Neupert effect in solar flares implies a correlation between the hard X-ray fluence and the soft X-ray flux, which predicts identical size distributions for these two parameters. Quantifying of thermal flare energies in soft X-ray emitting plasma needs also to include radiative and conductive losses. The intermittency and bursty variability of the solar dynamo implies a nonstationary SOC driver, which yields a universal value for the power law slope of fluxes, but the power law slopes of waiting times vary with the flare rate. While our focus encompasses primarily SOC models, alternative models in terms of MHD turbulence can explain some characteristics of SOC features also, such as size distribution functions, Fourier spectra, and structure functions.

The second edition of this popular textbook has been extensively revised and brought up-to-date with new chapters addressing energy storage and off-grid systems. It provides a quantitative yet accessible overview of the renewable energy technologies that are essential for a net-zero carbon energy system. Covering wind, hydro, solar thermal, photovoltaic, ocean and bioenergy, the text is suitable for engineering undergraduates as well as graduate students from other numerate degrees. The technologies involved, background theory and how projects are developed, constructive and operated are described. Worked examples demonstrate the simple calculation techniques used and engage students by showing them how theory relates to real applications. Tutorial chapters provide background material supporting students from a range of disciplines, and there are over 150 end-of-chapter problems with answers. Online resources, restricted to instructors, provide additional material, including copies of the diagrams, full solutions to the problems and examples of extended exercises.

The second edition of this popular textbook has been extensively revised and brought up-to-date with new chapters addressing energy storage and off-grid systems. It provides a quantitative yet accessible overview of the renewable energy technologies that are essential for a net-zero carbon energy system. Covering wind, hydro, solar thermal, photovoltaic, ocean and bioenergy, the text is suitable for engineering undergraduates as well as graduate students from other numerate degrees. The technologies involved, background theory and how projects are developed, constructive and operated are described. Worked examples demonstrate the simple calculation techniques used and engage students by showing them how theory relates to real applications. Tutorial chapters provide background material supporting students from a range of disciplines, and there are over 150 end-of-chapter problems with answers. Online resources, restricted to instructors, provide additional material, including copies of the diagrams, full solutions to the problems and examples of extended exercises.

The second edition of this popular textbook has been extensively revised and brought up-to-date with new chapters addressing energy storage and off-grid systems. It provides a quantitative yet accessible overview of the renewable energy technologies that are essential for a net-zero carbon energy system. Covering wind, hydro, solar thermal, photovoltaic, ocean and bioenergy, the text is suitable for engineering undergraduates as well as graduate students from other numerate degrees. The technologies involved, background theory and how projects are developed, constructive and operated are described. Worked examples demonstrate the simple calculation techniques used and engage students by showing them how theory relates to real applications. Tutorial chapters provide background material supporting students from a range of disciplines, and there are over 150 end-of-chapter problems with answers. Online resources, restricted to instructors, provide additional material, including copies of the diagrams, full solutions to the problems and examples of extended exercises.

This chapter initially explains how dependencies are established when at least a part of an infrastructure system requires the provision of the service to function. Although the focus is on functional dependencies, this chapter also explores physical and conditional dependencies. Resilience metrics presented in previous chapters are broadened in order to represent the effect of dependencies on resilience levels. Dependencies established within an infrastructure system are also explained. The concept of buffer as a local storage of the resources related to the depending service is defined as part of these expanded metrics, and then it is exemplified by examining a practical application of such buffers: power plants for information and communication network (ICN) sites. After introducing the main concepts and ideas related to dependencies, this chapter takes a broader view by discussing interdependencies when those are established both directly and indirectly. The study of interdependencies for electric power grids and ICN also explores the relationship with other infrastructures, such as transportation networks and water distribution systems, and with community social systems.

This chapter is dedicated to examining strategies and technologies for improving power grids’ resilience. The first part of this chapter focuses on traditional power grids by presenting technologies and management approaches for improved resilience at the power generation, transmission, and distribution levels and by discussing strategies for enhanced withstanding capability or reduced restoration speed. The second part of this chapter explores the effect that the evolution of power grids into “smart” grids may likely have in the future. Advanced technologies that have already been implemented at all levels of power grids are discussed. Alternative power distribution approaches implemented at the load level, such as microgrids, able to significantly improve resilience with respect to traditional power grids, are also described in this chapter.

Chapter Six introduces the overarching law provisions in the Energy Conservation Law related to low-carbon development targets, energy efficiency regulation, energy storage, and financial support prescribed to incentivise these mechanisms. Energy efficiency and energy storage are critical measures that can help China achieve the carbon neutrality objective in a cost-effective and sustainable manner. By improving the energy efficiency of industrial sectors, buildings, and transportation, China can reduce the amount of energy needed to achieve its economic and climate goals, which benefits energy security and emission reductions. This chapter examines the essential regulatory measures adopted by the Energy Conservation Law and critically analyses the regulatory development concerning energy efficiency and energy storage in China.

This chapter covers the basics of energy storage, i.e., why it is needed, when it is used, how it is used, its benefits, and the types of energy storage technologies. Special attention is given to thermal energy storage due to its usage in a variety of guises in renewable power applications.

The fact that diapause is programmed well in advance of its onset enables the insect to take preparative steps supporting its upcoming period of developmental arrest. Such steps frequently include modifications in the rate of pre-diapause development (most commonly a prolongation but sometimes an acceleration in development), acquisition of additional energy reserves (usually in the form of lipids), local or distant migration to overwintering sites, selection of a suitable microenvironment for spending the months of diapause, enhancement of the refuge (additional waterproofing, etc.), formation of aggregations, adjusting color to blend with the diapause environment, and making structural modifications (e.g., short- vs. long-winged forms), and, as seen in aphids, switching reproductive modes from parthenogenesis to sexual reproduction. These sorts of pervasive changes that occur even before diapause begin to underscore the idea that diapause is most appropriately viewed as an alternative life cycle, impacting more than just the diapause state.

This chapter discusses a multitude of energy storage mechanisms that include pumped storage hydro (PSH) systems and various forms of battery storage, as well as other forms of energy storage with varying levels of technical and commercial maturity. The role and importance of energy storage is changing with the introduction of renewable energy generation such as wind and solar photovoltaics whose output is inherently variable. This increasing generation variability has created a need for energy storage to provide energy balancing. This chapter discusses the different requirements for energy balancing within renewable-based power systems over various timescales. The requirements for balancing services will be met by different forms of energy storage, highlighting the need for a portfolio of energy storage technologies. Energy storage also provides other benefits for modern power systems including to provide network and systems services and to enhance system flexibility and resilience. This chapter concludes by exploring issues related to the integration of energy storage into electricity grids and reviews social research related to energy storage uptake.

Our society does not need energy per se. We use the various forms of energy to accomplish desired actions – commuting to work, keeping the interior of homes at comfortable temperatures, producing industrial goods, etc. The so-called “minimum energy” requirement for processes is actually a thermodynamic maximum, defined by exergy. The application of the exergy methodology determines the benchmark for the minimum energy resources that arerequired to perform the desired actions and tasks. The minimum energy benchmark is determined for several processes including: natural gas transportation, refrigeration, liquefaction, drying, water desalination, and petroleum refining. The energy requirements for the lighting, heating and air-conditioning of buildings are also calculated as well as the minimum energy for the transportation of goods and the commuting of persons in conventional and electric vehicles. Given their importance for the transition to renewable energy forms, the exergy method is applied to energy storage systems. Several examples in this chapter offer assistance and resources for the application of the exergy methodology to energy-consuming systems and processes.