Scolytus amygdali is a polyphagous insect pest that feeds on fruit trees and forest trees. Our study assessed the host preference and reproductive potential of S. amygdali on four tree species: almond (Prunus dulcis), apricot (Prunus armeniaca), peach (Prunus persica), and plum (Prunus domestica). Females of S. amygdali produced maternal galleries that were longer on peach than the other three trees, and female fecundity was highest on peach. Females with longer maternal galleries produced more eggs, indicating a positive correlation between maternal gallery length and female fertility. The under-bark development time of S. amygdali is significantly shorter on plum (45 days) and almond (56 days) than on apricot (65 days) and peach (64 days). Despite this longer development time on peach, our results still suggest that, of the four types of tree tested, peach is the most preferred host for S. amygdali.

Introduction. Mango-based orchards in Senegal occur in a large diversity of cropping systems, but few typologies of these systems exist and none are associated with their comprehensive and quantitative analysis. In this study we defined and characterized the typology of these systems based on a quantitative assessment of their planting design, management, vegetative state, hedgerow structure and infestation by a major pest of mango, the Bactrocera invadens fly. Materials and methods. Multivariate analysis and clustering methods were applied to data from 64 mango-based orchards and their surrounding hedgerows sampled in the Dakar and Thiès regions, in Senegal. Results and discussion. Four types of cropping systems were identified according to orchard design and management patterns: (1) ‘No-input mango diversified orchards’, (2) ‘Low-input mango orchards’, (3) ‘Medium-input citrus-predominant orchards’ and (4) ‘Medium-input large mango- or citrus-predominant orchards’. Orchard characteristics varied among these patterns. For instance, vegetation was dense and homogeneous in system 1, and the mortality rate of trees was high in system 2 but low in system 3. Orchards of systems 3 and 4 were mostly associated with hedgerows with, respectively, boundary-marking and defensive species. Lastly, the number of B. invadens flies was high in orchards of system 4, whereas it was low in those of system 2. Conclusion. The diversity of mango-based cropping systems in Senegal is now well described and quantified. This characterization is a preliminary step that is essential for further studies aiming to improve these systems.

Introduction. Angiotensin I-Converting Enzyme(ACE) is a key component in regulation of blood pressure by virtue ofthe rennin-angiotensin system. ACE converts the inactive decapeptide,angiotensin I, into the potent vasopressor octapeptide, angiotensinII, and inactivates bradykinin, which has a vasodilating action. So,inhibition of ACE has become a major target in control ofhypertension. It is well known that the consumption of fruits couldprovide health benefits by lowering the risk of chronic diseases suchas metabolic syndrome diseases including type 2 diabetes andcardiovascular disease. Our current study was focused on investigatingthe ACE inhibitory property of a few underutilized minor fruits ofWest Bengal using an in vitro assay. Materialsand methods. The potential antihypertensive activity ofunderutilized indigenous edible fruits of West Bengal, India, wasevaluated by their ability to inhibit Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme(ACE). The ACE inhibitory property was assayed using ACE from rabbitlung and hippuryl-histidyl-leucine as the substrate. Nineteen fruitspecies belonging to 15 families were investigated. The percentage ACEinhibitory activities of these fruits were studied at 20 µg freshweight of fruit extract per mL. The total phenol content of all thesefruits was determined following the standard Folin-Ciocalteu method.Total flavonoid content was also measured. Results. Theaqueous fruit extracts of the red variety of Trapabispinosa, Phoenix sylvestris,Cicca acida, Achras sapota andAverrhoa carambola presented more than 75% ACEinhibition. On the other hand, Punica granatum,Spondias pinnata, Trapabispinosa (green) and Ziziphus mauritianashowed about 50% inhibition. Aeglemarmelos, Annona squamosa, Annona reticulata,Feronia elephantum, Physalis peruviana andSyzygium jambos showed low activity (< 50%inhibition). Discussions. To date there has been noreport on Angiotensin I-Converting Enzyme inhibitory activities ofthese underutilized minor fruits of West Bengal, India. During ourstudy no correlation could be established between the % ACE inhibitionand the total phenol or flavonoid content of these fruit extracts. So,it appears that non-phenolic components may also be responsible forACE inhibitory activity. In our investigation we tried to establishthe fact that the consumption of these underutilized minor fruitsmight have potential in managing cardiovascular diseases.

Introduction. This study was carried out in French Guiana, over ten years (1994–2003) by three institutions (SPV, FDGPC and CIRAD); it updates the current state of knowledge of Tephritidae (both Dacini and Toxotrypanini tribes) species present in this country. Materials and methods. The work was mainly conducted in inhabited areas (from the Brazilian border to the Surinamese border) where cultivated fruit crops are located. Specimens were obtained by adult trapping and fruit sampling in nearby orchards and at the edge of the rainforest. Trapping was done consistently for 10 years, while fruit sampling was a discontinuous activity. We present only the results for fruit sampling from three consecutive years (2001–2003) in which a total of 880 kg from 45 fruit species in 22 plant families were collected. Results. Twenty-nine plant species from fourteen plant families were found to be hosts of twenty-one Anastrepha species and one Bactrocera species, Bactrocera carambolae Drew and Hancock. During this period, no specimen of Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) was collected in traps or fruit samples. We registered the main fruit trees which were hosts for B. carambolae and Anastrepha spp. Five hymenopterous parasitoid species were identified. Among them, Diachasmimorpha longicaudata (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera, Braconidae) is an exotic species and was introduced into French Guiana in collaboration with Brazilian authorities (EMBRAPA) in 2000 and 2001 within the framework of a classical biological control program. Conclusion. Our data provide baseline information about the tephritid species of economic importance present in French Guiana and assist in developing potential future control programs of both the B. carambolae and Anastrepha species in the Amazon Basin. These preliminary results are discussed in the light of their implication for rainforest conservation efforts and also evolutionary relationships between fruit flies and their hosts.

Introduction. Plant water stressindicators have become valuable for moving towards deficit irrigationstrategies and saving water. In this case evapotranspiration (ET)is below its maximum value for the crop and stage (ETc),and a stress coefficient (Ks) is applied to obtainactual ET (ETa). Predawn leaf waterpotential (Yp) can be related to relative transpiration(RT), the ratio between transpiration of a stressedplot (T) and transpiration of a well-irrigatedplot (Tm). Estimating RT fromYp allows calculating ETa fordetermination of irrigation amounts, if deficit irrigation practicesare used, as RT corresponds approximately to Ks. Materials and methods. RT and Yp were measuredwith the aim of establishing a relationship to estimate RT undermoderate water stress for irrigation scheduling, in a peach orchardin south Portugal. RT was calculated using sap flowmeasurements (heat balance method) in two plots, one well-irrigated(daily drip irrigation amounts calculated for Tm) andanother temporarily without irrigation. Results and discussion. Ahigh correlation was found between RT and Yp,allowing the estimation of RT for the studied conditions.Significant differences regarding the relationship RT-Yp obtained for another peach orchard in the sameregion and similar soil conditions were found for Yp inthe range between –0.11 and –0.45 MPa. The results suggest that thedifferences resulted from the different irrigation systems: dripand micro-sprinkling, as they determine different temporal and spatialwater distribution and therefore different geometry of root systems.A formerly proposed equation to estimate RT fromYp with a general form for different fruit treespecies was tested, proving to be adequate within some limits: when RT is lowered to 0.7, the error was below 9%. Thethreshold value RT = 0.7 was considered a minimumas it was successfully tested in deficit irrigation practices for peachorchards.

Introduction. Insect pest identification and understanding of insect pest ecological relationships constitute a basic step for any control measure needed. Some native fruit trees occur naturally in southern Mozambique and the edible fruits are sought after by local communities. Our study aimed at assessing the activity of native fruit tree insect pests during the year and their ecological relationships, providing, for the first time, a faunistic analysis of insect species affecting fruit trees in the region of Maputo, Mozambique. Materials and methods. Entomological surveys were carried out between June 2002 and December 2003 in the Districts of Manhiça, Marracuene, Namaacha and Matutuíne (southern Mozambique). Quadrangular 900-m2 plots were established in fields where Annona senegalensis, Garcinia livingstonei and Vangueria infausta native fruit trees naturally occurred. The number of individual insect pests per fruit, tree and plot was recorded to estimate ecological fauna measurements: the affinity index, association index and simultaneous constancy. Results and conclusion. A total of 1648 insect specimens, belonging to eight insect species, were found while conducting the ecological observations on Annona senegalensis Pers (Annonaceae), Garcinia livingstonei T. Anders (Clusiaceae) and Vangueria infausta Burch (Rubiaceae). Two groups of pests were observed: defoliators and insects attacking the fruits, which represented the majority. Affinity between insect species was observed, with the relationship between Ceratitis capitata Wiedemann and one unidentified species of the Cosmopterigidae family reaching the highest values. C. capitata was also found to have the highest association index with Spatulipalpia monstrosa Balinsky (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), as well as Carpophilus sp. (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) and Araecerus sp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). C. capitata and Araecerus sp. had the highest simultaneous occurrence in different locations. Cluster analysis also indicated that Ceratitis capitata and Carpophilus sp. had the highest similarity percentage in all samples.

Introduction. L’absence de données statistiques fiables et exhaustives sur les exploitations fruitières constitue un handicap pour élaborer une stratégie pertinente de développement de ces cultures et en évaluer l’impact. Une enquête a été réalisée sur les cultures fruitières dans trois sites (Bokito, Foréké et Yaoundé) en zone humide du Cameroun. Matériel et méthodes. Les arbres fruitiers cultivés ont été caractérisés en analysant le profil du producteur et la place de ces cultures dans les activités pratiquées par les familles des exploitants agricoles. Les espèces présentes, le nombre de pieds, l’origine du matériel végétal, l’âge des arbres et les contraintes de production ont été étudiés dans 193 exploitations familiales agricoles. Résultats et discussion. Les chefs d’exploitation, dont 90 % sont des hommes, ont en moyenne 51 ans et un niveau de formation relativement bas. La diversité des espèces fruitières répertoriées varie suivant les sites. La composition spécifique du verger est aussi variable mais quatre espèces majeures (safoutier, oranger, manguier et avocatier) constituent 78 % des plants recensés. Cette répartition corrobore les préférences exprimées par les producteurs pour ces espèces fruitières. Les jeunes arbres (< 10 ans), qui indiquent une dynamique de replantation, constituent (15, 21 et 38) % des effectifs respectivement à Bokito, Foréké et Yaoundé. Toutefois d’importantes disparités intraspécifiques sont observées et discutées. En termes de contribution à la sécurité alimentaire du ménage, les arbres fruitiers, par rapport aux autres spéculations, occupent le 1er, le 2e et le 4e rang à Bokito, Foréké et Yaoundé, respectivement. Les contraintes de production sont d’ordre parasitaire (maladies et ravageurs), agronomique (variétés, pratiques culturales, etc.) ou socioéconomique (intrants, foncier, etc.). Conclusion. Notre travail a permis d’obtenir d’importantes données sur les arbres fruitiers cultivés en zone humide du Cameroun. Les implications des principaux résultats sont discutées dans la perspective d’améliorer, en qualité, en quantité et dans la durée, ces productions.

Introduction. Fruit flies (Diptera, Tephritidae) are among the major constraints in commercial horticulture in many African developing countries. Knowledge of the tephritid spectrum in any given area is a prerequisite for the development of an IPM program to alleviate the pest problem. We studied the fruit fly diversity in four main agro-ecological zones which are significant fruit-producing areas in the Morogoro Region, Tanzania. Materials and methods. Fruit fly diversity was investigated for one year (October 2004 – October 2005). Parapheromones, synthetic food attractant and protein-bait traps were used to trap the flies at the different locations in Morogoro region, Tanzania. One mixed orchard was selected at each of four locations representing the different agro-ecological zones of the region. Results. The recently introduced alien species, Bactrocera invadens, and three indigenous pest species, Ceratitis rosa, Dacus bivittatus and D. punctatifrons, were found at all the four sites, while Bactrocera cucurbitae, Ceratitis cosyra, Dacus chiwira and D. humeralis were found in three out of the four sites. The Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) Horticulture Unit and Mikese sites had the highest species diversity while the Mkindo and Nyandira sites had the lowest diversity. The between-habitats diversity (Beta diversity) was similar among the SUA, Mkindo and Mikese sites. Only the Nyandira site had a higher dissimilarity in comparison with the other three sites. Discussion. The most abundant species at low- and mid-elevation sites was Bactrocera invadens while, at high elevation, Ceratitis rosa was the dominant species. Protein-baited traps attracted the highest diversity of fruit flies in comparison with the more specific parapheromones. The synthetic food attractant (three-component lure) was less efficient compared with the protein bait. The large dissimilarity at the Nyandira site is probably due to the different types of host fruits found and grown in high altitude areas (mainly temperate fruits). Fruit fly species associated with these types of fruits, e.g., Ceratitis rubivora and Trirhithrum coffeae, were found only at this site.

Introduction. Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) can promote host growth and, among other benefits, alleviate the stress produced by transplanting seedlings from the nursery to the field. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of the amount of AMF inoculum on growth of Hancornia speciosa (Mangaba tree). Materials and methods. A greenhouse experiment was performed using a randomized experimental design in a factorial arrangement of 3 × 3 corresponding to: two AMF (Gigaspora albida Schenck & Smith andGlomus etunicatum Becker & Gerdeman) treatments plus one control with plants without AMF three inoculum densities [(50, 100 and 300) spores per plant], with five replicates, in a methyl bromide sterilized soil. Results. After 120 d, seedlings associated with G. albida had greater height, shoot diameter and dry biomass of the aerial part and leaf area than those associated with G. tunicatum, independent of inoculum density. G. etunicatum did not influence growth of H. speciosa. Positive correlations occurred between plant growth parameters and root colonization promoted by G. albida. Regression analysis showed interaction between the inoculum density of G. albida and plant growth parameters. Discussion and conclusion. Increments in growth of H. speciosa can be obtained with inoculation of approximately 180 spores of G. albida per plant, which could reduce the necessary period of time for the transplanting of seedlings from the nursery to the field.

The U.S. public is expressing strong preference for the use of biological control methods in the management of U.S. agricultural, forest, and rangeland insect pests. This follows from a widespread understanding among citizens that synthetic insecticides have potentially harmful side effects on humans and that they are spreading increasingly as pollutants in the environment. Major recent increases in the number of pesticide-resistant insect species also put pressure on the agricultural community toward adoption of alternative non-agchemical plant and animal protection strategies. Movement in the direction of such alternatives has been facilitated by the fact that in the last two decades much progress has been made in Integrated Pest Management (IPM) through an improved understanding of the interactions of pests with their hosts. In that time period, many advances have been made in describing and predicting insect movement, seasonal cycles, and the effects of secondary plant compounds on insect reproduction. Simultaneously, much has been learned about the behavior, physiology, and population dynamics of insect parasitoids, i.e. parasites on insect pests. In the 1990's and subsequently, Biological Control Intensive Pest Management (BCIPM) will require continuing research to attain needed advancement in knowledge of growth and development of host plants, population dynamics of pests and parasitoids, and ecology of secondary pests that may interfere with implementation of BCIPM programs. Extension and research personnel will then be increasingly able to devise useful control methods for pests within selected cropping systems. We describe here examples to illustrate present and potential future use of BCIPM in different practical plant systems in New Jersey.