Although Sijilmassi et al. repeatedly use the term “history,” and have “myths” in their title, we suggest their proposal would be strengthened by incorporating more about the importance and influence of stories. We agree with the authors of this interesting article that myths use cues of shared history and experiences of interdependence to help promote human cooperation. Here, we take a closer look at myths of shared history in different parts of the world. In this way we extend Sijilmassi et al.'s theory and suggest that the path from myth to cooperation lies beyond shared ancestry. We suggest that it is the sharing of human emotions that is most impactful.
Consider the book of Genesis (e.g., Rosenberg & Bloom, Reference Rosenberg and Bloom1990), which is not mentioned by Sijilmassi et al. It has had huge effects in many parts of the world through Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. All three religions tell the myth of a god creating a man and a woman, with Eve as the universal mother. Although these religion-based groups are separate, even competitive, what has helped to coalesce each of them is its own myth. When new allegiances have formed, for instance when Christianity separated from Judaism, the new coalition was prompted by changes in its stories to those about Jesus. In Islam, stories formed about the influence of the prophet Muhammad. Myths of origin offer shared beliefs with these stories being told and retold in synagogues, churches, and mosques. Parts of these stories also serve as bases of emotionally engaging cultural rituals and practices that enhance members' shared engagement with each other.
Sijilmassi et al. recognize myths as foundational to the cultural fabrics of societies. However, the divergence of stories as told by three competing religions, which share a common history through Eve, counters their argument that it's basically a shared ancestry that promotes cooperation. We suggest that the authors consider the emotional influences of myths. Stories can give people a sense of belonging (Baumeister & Leary, Reference Baumeister and Leary1995). For myths to be retold over generations, motivation occurs not principally by shared lineage, but also by the evoked emotions that interconnect people, and give them a strong sense of membership in their societies.
Empirically, with evidence from several research groups, the influence of stories, as compared with explanations, has been found to include a greater sense of empathy and better understanding of other people whom we know (Mar, Reference Mar2018; Oatley, Reference Oatley2016).
Wright (Reference Wright1992) put it like this:
Myth is an arrangement of the past, whether real or imagined, in patterns that reinforce a culture's deepest meanings and aspirations … Myths are so fraught with meaning that we live and die by them. They are the maps by which cultures navigate through time (p. 5).
Portrayals of emotions occur in myths of origin from various cultures. Genesis is thought first to have been written as fictional story some 2900 years ago by a woman called J (Rosenberg & Bloom, Reference Rosenberg and Bloom1990). Her account includes the origins of humans' emotional suffering caused by the first act of human choice: To eat a fruit of a tree that would enable her to know the good and the bad, with a punitive reaction to doing so by a male god. Over the next few centuries, J's story was changed and redacted to become a myth that became central to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Contrary to what Sijilmassi et al. propose, it was about choices made by humans in general, rather than by shared ancestry.
Another example is from China. Here, the goddess Nüwa molded humans out of yellow soil due to her feelings of loneliness (Schipper, Ye, & Yin, Reference Schipper, Ye and Yin2011). From the laughter of the first humans, Nüwa felt joy; from this she created more humans. In recognizing their loneliness, people seek out others for company, connection, and coalition. Once again, rather than ancestry as Sijilmassi et al. propose, we suggest that people derive the benefit of joy from the presence of others, as expressed in this myth.
Kotovych, Dixon, Bortolussi, and Holden (Reference Kotovych, Dixon, Bortolussi and Holden2011) have shown that, when people have to make inferences as they read a story, they experience more insight into characters than when they are told directly about characters' personalities. This invitation to make inferences may be present in a myth of origin from India. This story is told through a hymn, entitled Purusha, in Rigveda (Anonymous, Reference Brereton and Jamison1500–1000 BCE), the oldest Hinduist text. It tells of a giant man, dismembered and sacrificed to create everything on earth, including humans. Below is an excerpt with alternative translations in brackets.
When they apportioned the Man, into how many parts did they arrange him?
What was his mouth? What his two arms? What are said to be his two thighs, his two feet?
The brahmin (priest) was his mouth. The ruler was made his two arms.
As to his thighs – that is what the freeman (merchant) was. From his two feet the servant was born.
Once again, rather than the emphasis being on shared origins, as Sijilmassi et al. propose, this myth motivates people of the same social group to work together since they depend on each other to make up each specific body part, and that cooperation among social groups is needed to make up the whole of Purusha.
We believe this myth motivates coalition beyond its explicit descriptions of social harmony. We attempt to infer emotions from the story. Imagery of a body taken apart may evoke pain. This kind of feeling, attached to the idea of sacrifice for future generations, may also evoke guilt and gratitude, perhaps as felt toward one's mother for the gift of birth. Gratitude can motivate people toward acts of kindness and cooperation within their culture-based societies.
Taken together, myths not only help establish specific cultures but also convey, generally, human experiences of suffering, companionship, and sacrifice. Such familiar experiences evoke emotions of pain, joy, and gratitude. These emotions help people understand and identify with one another, prompting interest in our efforts to live together.
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Although Sijilmassi et al. repeatedly use the term “history,” and have “myths” in their title, we suggest their proposal would be strengthened by incorporating more about the importance and influence of stories. We agree with the authors of this interesting article that myths use cues of shared history and experiences of interdependence to help promote human cooperation. Here, we take a closer look at myths of shared history in different parts of the world. In this way we extend Sijilmassi et al.'s theory and suggest that the path from myth to cooperation lies beyond shared ancestry. We suggest that it is the sharing of human emotions that is most impactful.
Consider the book of Genesis (e.g., Rosenberg & Bloom, Reference Rosenberg and Bloom1990), which is not mentioned by Sijilmassi et al. It has had huge effects in many parts of the world through Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. All three religions tell the myth of a god creating a man and a woman, with Eve as the universal mother. Although these religion-based groups are separate, even competitive, what has helped to coalesce each of them is its own myth. When new allegiances have formed, for instance when Christianity separated from Judaism, the new coalition was prompted by changes in its stories to those about Jesus. In Islam, stories formed about the influence of the prophet Muhammad. Myths of origin offer shared beliefs with these stories being told and retold in synagogues, churches, and mosques. Parts of these stories also serve as bases of emotionally engaging cultural rituals and practices that enhance members' shared engagement with each other.
Sijilmassi et al. recognize myths as foundational to the cultural fabrics of societies. However, the divergence of stories as told by three competing religions, which share a common history through Eve, counters their argument that it's basically a shared ancestry that promotes cooperation. We suggest that the authors consider the emotional influences of myths. Stories can give people a sense of belonging (Baumeister & Leary, Reference Baumeister and Leary1995). For myths to be retold over generations, motivation occurs not principally by shared lineage, but also by the evoked emotions that interconnect people, and give them a strong sense of membership in their societies.
Empirically, with evidence from several research groups, the influence of stories, as compared with explanations, has been found to include a greater sense of empathy and better understanding of other people whom we know (Mar, Reference Mar2018; Oatley, Reference Oatley2016).
Wright (Reference Wright1992) put it like this:
Myth is an arrangement of the past, whether real or imagined, in patterns that reinforce a culture's deepest meanings and aspirations … Myths are so fraught with meaning that we live and die by them. They are the maps by which cultures navigate through time (p. 5).
Portrayals of emotions occur in myths of origin from various cultures. Genesis is thought first to have been written as fictional story some 2900 years ago by a woman called J (Rosenberg & Bloom, Reference Rosenberg and Bloom1990). Her account includes the origins of humans' emotional suffering caused by the first act of human choice: To eat a fruit of a tree that would enable her to know the good and the bad, with a punitive reaction to doing so by a male god. Over the next few centuries, J's story was changed and redacted to become a myth that became central to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Contrary to what Sijilmassi et al. propose, it was about choices made by humans in general, rather than by shared ancestry.
Another example is from China. Here, the goddess Nüwa molded humans out of yellow soil due to her feelings of loneliness (Schipper, Ye, & Yin, Reference Schipper, Ye and Yin2011). From the laughter of the first humans, Nüwa felt joy; from this she created more humans. In recognizing their loneliness, people seek out others for company, connection, and coalition. Once again, rather than ancestry as Sijilmassi et al. propose, we suggest that people derive the benefit of joy from the presence of others, as expressed in this myth.
Kotovych, Dixon, Bortolussi, and Holden (Reference Kotovych, Dixon, Bortolussi and Holden2011) have shown that, when people have to make inferences as they read a story, they experience more insight into characters than when they are told directly about characters' personalities. This invitation to make inferences may be present in a myth of origin from India. This story is told through a hymn, entitled Purusha, in Rigveda (Anonymous, Reference Brereton and Jamison1500–1000 BCE), the oldest Hinduist text. It tells of a giant man, dismembered and sacrificed to create everything on earth, including humans. Below is an excerpt with alternative translations in brackets.
When they apportioned the Man, into how many parts did they arrange him?
What was his mouth? What his two arms? What are said to be his two thighs, his two feet?
The brahmin (priest) was his mouth. The ruler was made his two arms.
As to his thighs – that is what the freeman (merchant) was. From his two feet the servant was born.
Once again, rather than the emphasis being on shared origins, as Sijilmassi et al. propose, this myth motivates people of the same social group to work together since they depend on each other to make up each specific body part, and that cooperation among social groups is needed to make up the whole of Purusha.
We believe this myth motivates coalition beyond its explicit descriptions of social harmony. We attempt to infer emotions from the story. Imagery of a body taken apart may evoke pain. This kind of feeling, attached to the idea of sacrifice for future generations, may also evoke guilt and gratitude, perhaps as felt toward one's mother for the gift of birth. Gratitude can motivate people toward acts of kindness and cooperation within their culture-based societies.
Taken together, myths not only help establish specific cultures but also convey, generally, human experiences of suffering, companionship, and sacrifice. Such familiar experiences evoke emotions of pain, joy, and gratitude. These emotions help people understand and identify with one another, prompting interest in our efforts to live together.
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This research received no specific grant from any funding agency, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Competing interest
None.