Ludwig’s Bustard Neotis ludwigii, endemic to Africa’s south-west arid zone, is susceptible to collisions with overhead power lines. Limited data from the south-eastern part of its range suggest that this factor may threaten its survival. We estimated transmission line collision rates for Ludwig’s Bustard across its South African range to assess the effect of this mortality on the population. Conservatively, collision rates averaged at least 0.63 ± 0.12 fatal collisions per km of transmission line per year, with relatively little regional variation. Despite being less abundant, the larger males were more collision-prone than females, which might account for the female-biased population. Extrapolating collision rates across the range of the species suggests that 4,000–11,900 birds are killed annually on high-voltage transmission lines. Actual mortality on overhead lines is probably much greater, given biases in carcass detection (crippling, scavenging and habitat biases), as well as the fact that our estimate excludes mortality on lower voltage distribution lines and telephone wires. Given an estimated global population of 56,000–81,000 birds in the late 1980s, the demographic invariant method suggests that such mortality is unsustainable. This result supports the recent upgrading of the conservation status of Ludwig’s Bustard from ‘Least Concern’ to ‘Endangered’, and highlights the need for further research on this problem.

High mortality by electrocution has been suggested to be the main factor behind the reduction of several birds of prey populations across the world. Almost nothing is known, however, about the impact of power lines on this group of birds in the Neotropical Region. Here we estimate electrocution rates for birds on power lines covering both arid and semiarid biomes of central Argentina. We conducted six bi-monthly power line and raptor surveys throughout 355 km of lines and roads covering an area of approximately 12,000 km2. We described the structural design of 3,118 surveyed electricity pylons. We found 34 electrocuted individuals of four bird families that constitute an annual bird electrocution rate of 0.011 bird/pylon/year. Bird electrocution occurred mostly on concrete pylons with jumpers above the cross-arm. Larger birds of prey had a higher electrocution rate than smaller species. The Crowned Solitary Eagle Buteogallus coronatus was disproportionately affected by this mortality source when compared with its low population density. Electrocution incidents occurred mostly in a few electric pylon designs that represent only 10.2 % of the power pylons monitored in the study area. Therefore, the change or modification of a small fraction of pylons would almost eliminate bird electrocution incidents in our study area. Our results prove that electrocution is a relevant cause of mortality for Crowned Solitary Eagles and urgent mitigating actions are needed to reduce this mortality factor.

Recent evidence indicates that insectivorous birds in shade coffee farms provide economically significant ecosystem services by reducing insect pests, which should encourage cultivation practices favouring birds and other wildlife. However, the provisioning of this service may be dependent on landscape composition and movement patterns of these mobile consumers. Very little information is currently available on bird movements in coffee-dominated landscapes. We examined roosting behaviour in Black-throated Blue Warblers Dendroica caerulescens on two Jamaican coffee farms using radio telemetry in order to determine whether birds commute between nocturnal roosts and diurnal foraging ranges in coffee habitat. Nocturnal tracking revealed most birds moved outside diurnal foraging ranges on the farms to roost in forested habitat patches, sometimes up to 1 km away. Of 42 roost locations, only eight roosts were within the coffee farm perimeter: one individual in a coffee bush, and seven others in shade trees or vegetated riparian strips. Logistic regression confirmed that birds strongly selected continuous forest and individual trees over coffee for roosting. These findings reflect the ecological connectivity between coffee habitats and the adjacent landscape and raise the possibility that the provisioning of pest reduction services could be at least partly dependent on a farm’s proximity to forest patches.

Kirtland's Warbler Dendroica kirtlandii breeds in young jack pine Pinus banksiana forests on sandy soils in Michigan's lower peninsula, where there were 502 censused singing males in 1951 and 167 in 1974 and 1987. An ongoing control programme for the Brown-headed Cowbird Molothrus ater, a nest parasite, resulted in immediate and continued improvement in warbler reproductive success which was not, however, matched by an increase in warbler numbers until the 1990s. From three 1,000 ha reserves in the 1960s, currently over 54,000 ha are managed for the warbler. Despite the establishment of managed plantations, over 70% of warblers censused in the past 15 years have occupied habitat created by wildfires. Optimal habitat consists of more than 5,000 trees per hectare in a mosaic of dense patches interspersed with small openings. Nearly 70% of adult and 30% of juvenile warblers departing for the Bahamian wintering grounds return each spring, and the Michigan singing male population increased from 212 (1989) to 397 (1992) as abundant habitat, resulting from a 1980 wildfire, became available at Mack Lake. This suggests that lack of optimal habitat in Michigan has been the species's major problem.

The montane cloud-forests of the north-central Andes and the montane grassland and transitional elfin forest of the central Andean páramo contain a high diversity of bird species including several restricted range and uncommon species. Little is known of how densities of Andean cloud-forest species are affected by habitat degradation. Bird densities within pristine and degraded habitats at the Guandera Biological Reserve, Carchi province, Ecuador were recorded over a 10-week period. Densities were calculated for 48 species; where densities could be compared, 69% of species occurred at a higher density in pristine habitats. Pristine forest had the highest species richness with 72 species and páramo contained 44 species. In total, 26% of pristine forest species were only found in pristine forest, 39% of páramo species only in páramo, 13% of farmland species only in farmland and there were no exclusively secondary scrub species; 47% of species found in pristine forest, and 50% found in páramo were found in both secondary scrub and farmland. Restricted range species recorded at Guandera included the Carunculated Caracara Phalcobenus carunculatus, Black-thighed Puffleg Eriocnemis derbyi, Chestnut-bellied Cotinga Doliornis remseni, Crescent-faced Antpitta Grallaricula lineifrons, Masked Mountain-tanager Buthraupis wetmorei and Black-backed Bush-tanager Urothraupis stolzmanni. Three further species that occurred at Guandera of relatively local occurrence were the Grey-breasted Mountain Toucan Andigena hypoglauca, Golden-breasted Puffleg Eriocnemis mosquera and Mountain Avocetbill Opisthoprora euryptera. Of these nine species at least five used degraded habitats, while three occurred only in pristine treeline habitats.

Local changes in land use can influence patterns of habitat selection by farmland birds, thus biasing predictions of population responses to land use changes based on wildlife-habitat or niche modelling. This study, based in arable farmland in south-central Spain, determined whether habitat selection (use of agricultural habitats and the distance to roads, tracks and buildings) by Great Bustards Otis tarda varied between two nearby areas with differing land uses. The western sector has experienced a process of land abandonment and infrastructure development linked to an airport project that started in 1998 and finished in 2009, while the eastern sector maintains extensive dry farmland systems. Great Bustards avoided ploughed fields and selected short- and long-term fallows. Selection of fallows was more intensive in the sector suffering recent land-use changes, where these substrates were more abundant. Great Bustards were distributed further from roads, paths and buildings than would be expected if individual birds selected habitats at random. Avoidance of infrastructure was strongest in the area suffering recent land-use changes. Local patterns of habitat selection seemed to change in relation to agricultural abandonment and infrastructure development. Consequently, conservation measures based on knowledge of broad patterns of habitat use and selection such as agri-environmental schemes may fail to ensure steppe bird conservation locally if such local effects are overlooked. Specifically, schemes should include landscape-scale restrictions on the development and use of infrastructure (roads, tracks and buildings). Analyses of the patterns and causes of local and regional changes in habitat selection are essential to conserve populations of endangered farmland birds.

Declines in Old World vulture populations have been linked to anthropogenic pressures. To assess these threats, the social dimensions of vulture conservation must be explored. Prior research in Africa focused on commercial farmers’ perceptions of vultures and identified that small stock farmers used poison more than large stock farmers to deter livestock predators. However, the vulnerable Cape Vulture Gyps coprotheres breeds throughout communal farmland in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Consequently, community interviews were conducted within the foraging range of the Msikaba Cape Vulture colony, separating regions according to the amount of transformed land. Residents in the least transformed land region perceived the smallest reductions in livestock ownership over the past ten years, while residents of the moderately transformed region perceived the greatest reductions in livestock ownership. Livestock carcasses were reported to be available for vultures at ‘informal vulture restaurants’. Arrangement of livestock carcasses was found to be independent of land use; however type of carcass consumed varied. None of the respondents stated they used poison to eliminate livestock predators. More respondents cited illegal poaching of vultures for traditional medicine as a threat, although the majority stated that vultures benefited the community.

The Northern Bald Ibis or Waldrapp Geronticus eremita is a species of arid semi-deserts and steppes, which was formerly widely distributed as a breeding bird across North Africa, the Middle East and the European Alps. Just over 100 breeding pairs now remain in the wild at two sites in Morocco whilst two further wild pairs remain in Syria. There is also a population in Turkey, which is maintained for part of the year in captivity, and a large captive population in zoos. The species is classified by IUCN as ‘Critically Endangered’, the highest threat category. The wild population has grown during the past decade, which represents the first evidence of population growth in the species' recorded history. Conservation action in Morocco has contributed to this recovery. A large part of the contribution of research to conservation action has been to establish and document the value of simple site and species protection. Quantitative assessments of the importance of sites for breeding, roosting and foraging have helped to prevent disturbance and the loss of sites to mass-tourism development. Wardening by members of the local community have reduced disturbance by local people and others and increased the perceived value of the birds. Monitoring has suggested additional ways to improve the breeding status of the species, including the provision of drinking water and removal and deterrence of predators and competitors. These actions have been evaluated by subsequent testing. Steppe and two-year fallows were shown to be the key feeding habitats, and maintaining such non-intensive land uses in future may present major management challenges. The recovery in the Souss-Massa region remains precarious because the population is concentrated in a few places where adverse changes are possible. However, it could provide opportunities for natural extension of the range to formerly occupied sites further north in Morocco.

White-sand vegetation (WSV) is a rare vegetation type in the Amazon basin that grows in nutrient impoverished sandy soils that occur as patches of variable size. Associated with this vegetation is bird assemblage that has not yet been fully characterized. Based on published species inventories and our own field data we compile a checklist of bird species recorded in WSV. In addition, we compared the avifauna of WSV with that found in savanna patches, another type of Amazonian open vegetation. WSV hosted a distinctive avifauna including endemic and threatened species. The number of bird species was lower in WSV compared to nearby terra firme forests, seasonally flooded forests and Amazonian savannas. Despite its low diversity, the avifauna of WSV has a distinctive species composition and makes a significant contribution to Amazonian beta diversity. At least 35 bird species can be considered as indicator species for this environment. Previously identified areas of endemism within the Amazon basin house at least one WSV indicator bird including cases of congeneric species with allopatric distributions. Seven of the WSV indicator species (20% of this avifauna) are in an IUCN threatened category, with one species Polioptila clementsi considered Critically Endangered. Their isolated distribution, small area occupied, and fragility to human-driven disturbances makes WSV one of the most threatened vegetation types in the Amazon basin. The study of WSV avifauna contributes to a better understanding of mechanisms that generate and maintain species diversity as well as of the environmental history of the most biologically diverse biome of the planet.

The population growth of Brown Kiwi Apteryx mantelli was measured under four different management regimes: unmanaged, predator trapping, predator poisoning, and Bank of New Zealand Operation Nest Egg™ (BNZONE) — the removal of eggs for artificial incubation and return of resultant subadults to the wild. Life table analysis revealed that high adult mortality (7.3% per annum), caused mainly by domestic dog Canis familiaris and Ferret Mustela furo predation was the critical factor affecting Brown Kiwi populations in central Northland. The 13.8-year life expectancy of adults was only one-third of what can be expected in the absence of these two predators. Predation of Brown Kiwi chicks and juveniles (< 1 kg) by Stoats Mustela erminea and, to a lesser extent, domestic cats Felis catus, was also important. Unmanaged populations declined at 2.5% per annum. Trapping pests in a 200 ha area was largely ineffective, with the population declining by 1.7% per annum. Poisoning pests allowed Brown Kiwi populations to increase at 3.3% per annum. BNZONE proved to be by far the most effective tool, resulting in a 12.5% annual population increase, mainly due to 83% chick survival to six months old, compared with 10% survival in unmanaged sites. There were no observable behavioural problems associated with chicks being reared ex situ, but BNZONE was the most expensive tool and benefited only the Brown Kiwi. This study has helped to develop a range of tools that are now being used to facilitate recovery of populations of all four threatened species of kiwi in New Zealand, and the experimental approach used has wider application in management of other threatened species.

Forest ecosystems in South Africa are at risk from a variety of anthropogenic threats impacting the faunal species dependent on them. These impacts often differ depending on species-specific characteristics. Range data on forest dependent bird species from the South African Bird Atlas Project (SABAP1 and SABAP2) were analysed to determine links between deforestation, species characteristics and range declines. Half of the species studied were found to have declining ranges. Range change data for these species were correlated with data on changes in land cover from 1990 to 2014. To determine which land cover changes affect extinction, occupancy was modelled for 30 sites across South Africa which experienced a loss of more than 10 species. Most species lost were birds of prey or insectivores. Indigenous forest decreased in 17% (n = 5) sites, while plantations/woodlots decreased in 60% (n = 18) sites. Occupancy modelling showed extinction to be mitigated by plantations in 6/28 species, and forest expansion mitigated extinction in 7/28 species. Responses to deforestation did not appear to be related to particular species characteristics. Half of South Africa’s forest-dependent bird species have declining ranges, with the loss of these species most prominent in the Eastern Cape province. Four responses to changes in forest and plantation cover are discussed: direct effects, with forest loss causing species loss; matrix effects, where plantation loss resulted in species loss; degradation of indigenous forest; and the advent of new forest arising from woody thickening caused by carbon fertilisation, which may not result in optimal habitat for forest-dependent birds.

Cape Vulture Gyps coprotheres is endemic to southern Africa and is globally threatened. Colonies in Botswana comprise part of one of the two core breeding areas in the species's range, and very little has previously been published about them. Ground censusing of 11 Cape Vulture sites in Botswana was undertaken from 1992 to 1999, continuing a monitoring programme initiated by the authors in 1984. Survey methods and census procedures are documented. The potential Cape Vulture breeding population in Botswana is estimated to be about 600 pairs, comprising at least 100 pairs at Mannyelanong in the south-east and about 500 pairs in eastern Botswana. This represents an increase from previous estimates, and reflects improved census techniques rather than an increase in population size. The mean turnover rate of nest site usage from one year to the next averaged 21% at Mannyelanong, and was about 26% at Manong Yeng in eastern Botswana. Annual productivity of nest sites increased with the number of years the site had been occupied. Over the eight years of study eggs were laid in at least 436 of 477 nests (91.4%) at Mannyelanong; chicks survived to mid season (60–80 days old) in 327 nests (75% of eggs laid), and fledged (best estimate) in 248 nests (56.9% of eggs laid and 52% of pairs attempting to breed). In eastern Botswana eggs were laid in at least 1,825 of 2,101 nests (86.9%); chicks survived to mid season in 1,272 nests (69.7% of eggs laid). Two seasons have been excluded for eastern Botswana (1994 and 1995) due to incomplete data, and breeding success can be estimated only from 1997 to 1999: of 990 eggs laid out of 1,108 nests, chicks fledged in 384 nests (38.8% of eggs laid and 34.6% of pairs attempting to breed). The eastern Botswana breeding population remains in a state of flux following the collapse of a primary colony that was the country's Cape Vulture stronghold. Conservation concerns and the vulnerability of Cape Vulture sites are discussed.

The natural coastal wetlands of the East Asian-Australasian Flyway (EAAF) are disappearing at alarming rates, leading to rapid declines of many populations of waterbirds in the most species-rich flyway in the world. The identification and assessment of possible alternative habitats that may buffer the loss of natural wetlands should, therefore, be a priority for the conservation of migratory waterbirds using this flyway. Coastal saltpans are functional wetlands that support large numbers of waterbirds worldwide. The Nanpu Saltpans in the northern Bohai Bay of the Yellow Sea in China are one of the largest (290 km2) saltpan complexes in the world. In this paper, we document the value of the Nanpu Saltpans for supporting waterbirds. The surveys, carried out from 2013 to 2016, included waterbird counts in the saltpans (93 km2) at high and low tide and on the adjacent natural tidal flats (57 km2) at low tide. Of the 89 waterbird species recorded, 27 had maximum counts exceeding the 1% threshold value of estimated flyway populations. The maximum counts of waterbirds in northward migration and southward migration in the Nanpu Saltpans were 96,000 and 93,500, respectively, including both foraging and roosting birds; these figures do not account for turnover, so the total number of birds using the site is likely to be higher. The maximum counts on the adjacent tidal flats at low tide amounted to 73,000 and 20,000 waterbirds during northward and southward migration, respectively, and most of them were foraging birds. In the boreal winter, few birds fed in the saltpans, but several thousand fed on the tidal flats. Waterbirds used the inland ponds (2.0–18.0 km from the intertidal area) mainly for feeding both during low tide and high tide and used the nearshore ponds (0.3–4.3 km from the intertidal area) mainly for high-tide roosting. Some species, such as Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa, Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis, Pied Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta, and Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus, occurred mainly in the saltpans; other species preferred tidal flats, such as Red Knot Calidris canutus, Great Knot Calidris tenuirostris, Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica, Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata, Relict Gull Larus relictus, and Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola. This study clearly demonstrates the joint ecological function of the Nanpu Saltpan complex and adjacent tidal flats as a key staging area for waterbirds in the EAAF, and as such both urgently warrant protected status.

We developed a habitat suitability model for wintering populations of the Asian Houbara Bustard Chlamydotis macqueenii in Iran and determined environmental variables affecting its occurrence. Our results indicate that various patches in central, western and eastern Iran provide the most suitable habitats for the Houbara. Annual precipitation, slope and distance to croplands were the most important variables for predicting Houbara occurrence. We also determined the effects future climate changes on the distribution of the Houbara in Iran. Results showed that suitable habitats for the wintering Houbara will increase in Iran, but will also considerably shift under future climatic conditions. The distribution maps that we present for the present and future climatic conditions can have important implications for the conservation and management of Houbara populations in Iran.

The declining-population paradigm holds that small populations are particularly vulnerable to anthropogenic influences such as habitat destruction, pollution and species introductions. While the effects of particular stressors, such as parasitism, may be unimportant in a large, healthy population, they can be serious and even devastating in situations characterised by a restricted geographic range, or by fragmented or reduced population sizes. We apply this idea to nest parasitism of threatened Neotropical bird species that exist in small populations, focusing on dipteran nest parasites in the genus Philornis. We review the literature on Philornis parasitism exerting negative pressure on bird populations that have become small and isolated due to human actions and present a new case of Philornis parasitism of a threatened hummingbird species. Our aim is to raise awareness about the exacerbating effect that nest parasites can have on small and declining bird populations; especially when biological information is scarce. The five reviewed cases involve two species of Darwin’s Finches in the Galápagos Islands attacked by the invasive P. downsi, two species of hawks on islands in the Caribbean attacked by the native P. pici and P. obscura, and the Yellow Cardinal Gubernatrix cristata in southern South America attacked by an unknown Philornis species. We also present new documentation of parasitism of a threatened hummingbird species in mainland Ecuador by an unidentified Philornis species. We recommend more field studies to determine the presence of nest parasites in bird populations worldwide to improve understanding how nest parasites affect bird fitness and population viability and to allow time to act in advance if needed. Parasitism by Philornis may represent a severe mortality factor in most already threatened bird species, putting them at greater risk of extinction. Therefore, parasitism management should be included in all threatened species recovery plans.

The exceptionally rapid degradation and fragmentation of the Upper Guinea Forest, caused by slash-and-burn farming and selective logging, oblige bird conservationists to examine critically the conservation value of unprotected areas, which may provide buffer zones or connecting corridors to protected forests. This paper assesses the utilisation of various tree-crop plantations by mainly lower storey forest birds in south-west Ghana, through avifaunal comparisons of shaded cash crops (rustic cocoa; neglected coconut) and exotic tree plantations (Cedrela, Gmelina) with nearby closed forest. Plantations adjacent to, or within, large (>200 km2), biodiverse forests are superior bird habitats compared to similar plantations within small (<50 km2) and species-poor forests. A relatively high forest tree density in cash crop (15–20 ha−1) and exotic (15–35 ha−1) tree plantations, combined with a luxuriant woody undergrowth (not slashed for >5–10 years), may additionally explain the presence of many forest specialists, including regionally ‘Vulnerable’ and locally ‘Endangered’ species. Overall, 50% of species of conservation importance found in forests were represented in plantations. These findings highlight the importance of shaded plantations with long periods between understorey weeding, as appropriate land-use systems that enhance the area under effective conservation and improve the connectivity of protected forest fragments. Results are compared to similar studies in the Old and New World tropics, and implications for off-reserve land-use management are compared and discussed in regional and global contexts.

Olrog's Gull Larus atlanticus is an endemic species of the Atlantic coast of southern South America. It is one of six globally threatened gull species in the world, and is classified as Vulnerable. We studied age-related differences in the diet and foraging behaviour of this species in Mar Chiquita Lagoon during the non-breeding season. Diet was assessed by analysis of regurgitation casts, prey carcasses and direct observation, while foraging behaviour was quantified by focal observations. Grapsid crabs were by far the main prey in frequency of occurrence, followed by fish and snails. Some differences in diet were found between ages, particularly in spring when mature birds start to feed on the eggs of ovigerous females of the crab Cyrtograpsus angulatus. Foraging behaviour was similar between ages which is attributed to large resource availability, foraging strategies and social factors.

Crested Ibis Nipponia nippon is an Endangered species that has experienced a severe but short-lived population bottleneck in recent years. Only one wild population and two captive populations exist in China today, all of which were probably initiated from two breeding pairs rediscovered in 1981. This paper represents the first study of the genetic diversity of Crested Ibis by analysing sequence variation of a fragment spanning domains II and III of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region of both wild and captive populations. Two haplotypes were identified in both wild and captive populations, and the captive population had a bias towards haplotype 1. The species as a whole demonstrated an extremely low level of genetic diversity, with a haplotype diversity and nucleotide diversity of 0.386 ± 0.074 and 0.069% ± 0.013%, respectively. Despite the rapid increase in numbers of birds under intensive management, the paucity of genetic diversity remains a real threat to the species. The mtDNA control region variations detected in the present study could provide significant information additional to the studbook data of Crested Ibis; therefore we suggest that special attention be paid to individuals with haplotype 2 when considering captive breeding management. Overall, great care should be taken in the selection of reintroduction sites for this rare bird, as species with low genetic diversity are thought to be more limited in their ability to tolerate a wide range of environmental extremes and diseases.

The catastrophic declines of three species of ‘Critically Endangered’ Gyps vultures in South Asia were caused by unintentional poisoning by the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac. Despite a ban on its veterinary use in 2006 (India, Nepal, Pakistan) and 2010 (Bangladesh), residues of diclofenac have continued to be found in cattle carcasses and in dead wild vultures. Another NSAID, meloxicam, has been shown to be safe to vultures. From 2012 to 2018, we undertook covert surveys of pharmacies in India, Nepal and Bangladesh to investigate the availability and prevalence of NSAIDs for the treatment of livestock. The purpose of the study was to establish whether diclofenac continued to be sold for veterinary use, whether the availability of meloxicam had increased and to determine which other veterinary NSAIDs were available. The availability of diclofenac declined in all three countries, virtually disappearing from pharmacies in Nepal and Bangladesh, highlighting the advances made in these two countries to reduce this threat to vultures. In India, diclofenac still accounted for 10–46% of all NSAIDs offered for sale for livestock treatment in 2017, suggesting weak enforcement of existing regulations and a continued high risk to vultures. Availability of meloxicam increased in all countries and was the most common veterinary NSAID in Nepal (89.9% in 2017). Although the most widely available NSAID in India in 2017, meloxicam accounted for only 32% of products offered for sale. In Bangladesh, meloxicam was less commonly available than the vulture-toxic NSAID ketoprofen (28% and 66%, respectively, in 2018), despite the partial government ban on ketoprofen in 2016. Eleven different NSAIDs were recorded, several of which are known or suspected to be toxic to vultures. Conservation priorities should include awareness raising, stricter implementation of current bans, bans on other vulture-toxic veterinary NSAIDs, especially aceclofenac and nimesulide, and safety-testing of other NSAIDs on Gyps vultures to identify safe and toxic drugs.