In order to investigate the effects of dietary fibre (DF) characteristics on carbohydrate degradation and the metabolism in the large intestine, pigs were fed on four rye-bread diets (based on whole rye, pericarp/testa, aleurone or endosperm) with differences in characteristics and amount of DF. The degradability of DF in the large intestine varied greatly between diets. The pericarp/testa DF was hardly degraded in the large intestine, whereas endosperm DF was extensively and rapidly degraded in the caecum. Caecal degradation of aleurone DF was also limited, leaving more material to be degraded in the colon. The undegradable pericarp/testa DF was characterized by high contents of lignin, cellulose, ferulic acids and highly substituted arabinoxylans (the major DF component in rye). Ingestion of this diet resulted in increased faecal bulk and reduced transit time, but with low colonic pH and the lowest concentrations of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA). The aleurone diet, on the other hand, led to a fermentation pattern which may be considered more optimal, with lower colonic pH and higher concentrations of SCFA, in particular butyric acid. Despite the large differences in carbohydrate fermentation only minor significant effects on the presence of protein degradation products and on histological measurements (height and diameter of colonic crypts and thickness of the muscularis externa) were observed.

We investigated whether the potentiation of postprandial lipaemia by fructose occurs in both non-diabetic subjects and those with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Six non-diabetic and six diabetic subjects were studied on two occasions. They were given a meal containing 1 g fat/kg body weight with, on one occasion, 0.75 g fructose/kg body weight, on the other occasion 0.75 g starch/kg body weight. In both groups, plasma glucose and insulin concentrations rose more after starch than after fructose. At 1–2 h after the meal, plasma non-esterified fatty acid concentrations were suppressed more after fructose than after starch, but later they rose more after fructose than after starch. Plasma triacylglycerol concentrations rose more slowly after fructose, but were considerably higher than those after starch from 4–6 h after the meal. There were no differences in post-heparin plasma lipoprotein lipase (EC 3.1.1.34) activity at the end of the test. The potentiation of postprandial lipaemia by fructose was positively related to the fasting plasma insulin concentration, suggesting that insulin-resistant subjects are more prone to this effect. We conclude that the potentiation of postprandial lipaemia by fructose is seen in both diabetic and non-diabetic subjects. Our results suggest that alterations in the dynamics of plasma non-esterified fatty acids might underlie the effects of fructose on triacylglycerol metabolism.

Energy expenditure was estimated using the doubly-labelled water (DLW) method in summer in five free-living adult, non-pregnant, non-lactating, red deer (Cervus elaphus) hinds (weight 107.3 (se 0.9) kg; age 6 (se 1) years) on lowland pasture under typical farming conditions. Climatic conditions were monitored throughout the experiment. Errors due to 2H losses in CH4 and faeces were calculated from previous estimates of stoichiometries. CH4 production, fractionated water loss, urinary N and O2 consumption were estimated using an iterative approach. The water flux (rH2O) in these animals consuming only fresh grass was 12 (se 0.5) kg/d, the CO2 production (rCO2) was 1271 (se 4.0) litres/d and the mean energy expenditure was 25 (se 0.8) MJ/d. There were no significant differences in the isotope distribution spaces and flux rates, rH2O, rCO2 or energy expenditure using the multi-point or two-point approaches to calculation. The DLW-derived energy expenditure of 25 MJ/d is approximately 20% higher than the recommended intake of 21 MJ/d for adult hinds kept outdoors (Adam, 1986) and, at 757 kJ/kg0.75 per d, one third higher than the value of 570 kJ/kg0.75 per d for stags penned indoors (Key et al. 1984).

In patients who require enteric tube-feeding the osmolality of the formulas is assumed to play an important role. There is the dilemma that osmolality increases as the digestibility of formulas is enhanced by means of degradation of the nutrients. Hitherto there have been no reports of whether there are differences in nutrient absorption and water fluxes between iso-osmotic polymeric and hyperosmotic oligomeric diets. We therefore investigated absorption of nutrients and net fluxes of water during perfusion of a 1·5 m jejunal segment with oligomeric, polymeric and commercial oligopeptide diets either in the absence of pancreatic juice or with concomitant infusion of pancreatic enzymes. In the absence of pancreatic juice the absorption rates of the polymeric diet and the commercial oligopeptide diets reached 58·0 and 84·5 % respectively of that of a completely-hydrolysed hyperosmotic oligomeric diet. The concomitant infusion of pancreatic enzymes with the polymeric and oligopeptide diets significantly increased the absorption rates of nutrients and energy. The highest absorption rate of energy occurred with the commercial formula Survimed® (Fresenius, Bad Homburg, Germany), probably due to an optimal composition of the macronutrients. The increase in absorption due to the degradation of nutrients by pancreatic enzymes was associated with an increase in net water secretion and flow-rate, reaching similar values to those with the hyperosmotic oligomeric diet. It may be concluded that iso-osmotic oligopeptide formulas require further pancreatic hydrolysis for optimum absorption. In patients with normal pancreatic secretion, oligopeptide formulas have no advantage over polymeric diets. In patients with reduced pancreatic secretion, either completely-hydrolysed hyperosmotic oligomeric diets or polymeric diets supplemented with pancreatic enzymes are appropriate.

Lactation is a physiologically demanding period in mink production, during which kit and dam losses may occur. Ambient temperature and quantitative water supply are thought to affect animal performance and well-being, but conclusive data in the literature are sparse. Therefore, effects of ambient temperature (Ta; low, about 5° medium, about 15° high, average 20-25°) and water supply (ad libitum (N), or 10 % extra supplementation in the food (E)) were investigated regarding effects on quantitative water intake and excretion, urine osmolality and solute excretion, and urinary cortisol and catecholamines as stress indicators in an experiment with twelve lactating mink with litters of three to seven kits in three consecutive periods, lasting 3, 3 and 2 d respectively. Kit ages ranged from 15 to 20 d at the end of the experiment. Water requirement for milk production (factorial calculations) and water available for evaporation (balance component) were estimated. Period, and hence mainly Ta, had a significant influence on intake of metabolizable energy, quantitative water intake and excretion, but there was less effect of water supply. The total water intake and excretion were very high in relation to the weight of the animals as an effect of lactation. Water intake and excretion, and urinary Na excretion, seemed to be less accurately regulated compared with corresponding functions in non-lactating animals. Rectal temperature increased with increasing Ta, possibly as a means of decreasing evaporative water loss. Water output in milk was estimated to increase from 118 g/d at low Ta to 134 g/d at high Ta. The amounts of water available for evaporation were estimated to be 42, 58 and 69 g/kg0·75 at low, medium and high Ta. Cortisol data did not indicate that the animals experienced negative stress. It was concluded that prolonged periods of high Ta may be hazardous for lactating mink because of decreased intake of metabolizable energy resulting in energy deficit and excessive mobilization of body reserves simultaneously as the requirement for intake of water increases considerably.

The impact of ingesting various foods on psychological and behavioural functions is a topic of both interest and concern to the general public. In this article, the scientific literature concerning demonstrated cause-and-effect relationships is reviewed, beginning with methodological considerations specific to the quantification of particular behaviours and psychological events. The essential function of food is to satisfy hunger and the need for essential nutrients. The contributions of macronutrients to appetite and satiety are described, as well as their impact on metabolism and energy balance. Functional properties of macronutrient substitutes (high intensity sweeteners, fat replacers) and flavour enhancers are examined in relation to their contribution to hunger, satiety, and energy balance. The effects of foods and individual nutrients on the performance of diverse psychomotor tasks are studied with consideration given to the various validated quantitative tools used to assess behaviour. The effects of food components on activation, sedation, and affective states such as dysphoria are also reviewed, with special attention given to brain function and neuroactive substances such as serotonin and the endorphins. The case of hyperactivity in children is given special emphasis with reference to the potential influence of sugar and food additives. Safety issues related to food constituents and additives are discussed. Finally, a set of criteria is proposed for the evaluation and elaboration of studies in the behavioural and psychological fields, along with suggestions for future research.

The present study examined the influence of training, followed by a short period of detraining, on postprandial lipaemia. Fourteen normolipidaemic, recreationally active young adults aged 18–31 years participated, in two self-selected groups: three men and five women (BMI 21·7–27·6 kg/m2) completed 13 weeks of running training, after which they refrained from exercise for 9 d; three men and three women (BMI 21·5–25·6 kg/m2) maintained their usual lifestyle. Oral fat tolerance tests were conducted at baseline and again 15 h, 60 h and 9 d after the runners' last training session. Blood samples were drawn after an overnight fast and at intervals for 6 h after consumption of a high-fat meal (1·2 g fat, 1·4 g carbohydrate, 70·6 kJ energy/kg body mass). Heparin was then administered (100 IU/kg) and a further blood sample was drawn for measurement of plasma lipoprotein lipase (EC 3.1.1.34; LPL) activity. Endurance fitness improved in runners, relative to controls (maximal O2 uptake +3·2 (SE 1·1) ml/kg per min v. − 1·3 (SE 1·2) ml/kg per min; P < 0·05). In the absence of the acute effect of exercise, i.e. 60 h after the last training session, there was no effect of training on either postprandial lipaemia or on post-heparin LPL activity. However, changes during 9 d of detraining in both these variables differed significantly between groups; after 2 d without exercise (60 h test), the runners' lipaemic response was 37% higher than it was the morning after their last training session (15 h test; runners v. controls P < 0·05), with a reciprocal decrease in post-heparin LPL activity (P < 0·01). These findings suggest that improved fitness does not necessarily confer an effect on postprandial lipaemia above that attributable to a single session of exercise.

External digesta markers (Yb-labelled diets and Co-EDTA) were given orally as a pulse dose to four pairs of Rasa Aragonesa twin ewe lambs, fed on either chopped or ground and pelleted lucerne hay, in order to estimate slow (k1) and fast (k2) rates of passage of liquid and solid phase from faecal marker excretion curves. After the faecal sampling period daily doses of the same markers were infused continuously for 5 d and the animals slaughtered. Concentrations of markers in the different compartments of the gut were determined and used to calculate mean retention times. The results showed that the rumen and the large intestine were the two main mixing compartments of the gut, accounting for more than 95% of total mean retention time. Rates of passage estimated from faecal marker excretion did not accurately represent marker kinetics in the compartments of the gut derived from slaughter data. Accuracy in the estimation of fractional outflow rate from rumen (kR) by k1 was higher for low values of kR whereas k2consistently overestimated large intestine outflow rate (kLI), especially for high values of kR. The relationship between outflow rates from the main two mixing compartments was important in influencing the accuracy of prediction of faecal estimates.

To investigate whether long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids could cross the porcine placenta in late pregnancy and alter neonatal piglet tissue composition, multiparous sows (seven per diet) were fed on diets containing a supplement (30 g/kg) of either soyabean oil or tuna oil for the last 21 d of pregnancy and the first 7 d of lactation. The proportions of all fatty acids, except 18:1n-7, differed between diets: in particular, the tuna-oil-containing diet supplied more 22:6n-3 and less 18:2n-6 fatty acids than the soyabean-oil-containing diet. The proportions of n-3 fatty acids, particularly 22:6n-3 (g/100 g total fatty acids) in sow plasma, colostrum and milk were increased and the proportion of 18:2n-6 was decreased by feeding tuna oil. Piglet tissue n-3 fatty acid proportions (particularly 22:6n-3), obtained shortly after birth, were increased in piglets born to tuna-oil-fed sows compared with progeny of soyabean-oil-fed sows. The increase in the proportion of n-3 fatty acids (g/100 g total fatty acids) in piglet tissues as a result of tuna-oil feeding, compared with soyabean-oil-feeding, was in the order plasma>liver>erythrocytes>spleen>brain>retina. Piglets born to tuna-oil-fed sows had a lower viability score at birth than the progeny of soyabean-oil-fed sows. The proportions of long-chain n-3 fatty acid in tissues of new-born piglets were increased by feeding tuna oil to the sow in late pregnancy; however no improvements in piglet viability were observed.

Zn absorption was investigated in healthy elderly subjects aged 71–78 years and in young subjects aged 23–43 years using serum concentration curve (SCC) tests. Both groups had similar Zn and protein status. The increase in serum Zn was monitored for 180 min after ingestion of 200ml of soya milk enriched with 50mg of Zn. Three levels of phytic acid were used: 0g/200ml (totally dephytinized soya milk), 0.13 g/200ml (half dephytinized), and 0.26 g/200ml (natural phytic acid content). In a first study the effect of 0 v. 0.26 g/200 ml phytic acid was compared in 10 elderly and 10 young subjects, each subject receiving both treatments. In a second study soya milks with 0 and 0.13 g/200ml were tested in nine elderly and ten young subjects, again receiving both treatments. Mean areas under the curve of the SCC tests conducted with the 0 g/200 ml soya milk were found to be the same in both studies. Phytic acid strongly depressed Zn absorption in both studies (P ≤ 0.05), but to a greater extent at the 0.26 g/200ml level. No difference was found between the groups of young and elderly subjects. Therefore, no significant effect of aging on Zn absorption, as evaluated by the SCC test, or on the inhibitory effect of phytic acid was detected.

The energetic contribution from, and effects on the gastrointestinal tract of, indigestible oligosaccharides in growing rats were compared with those of sucrose (S). S and two types of oligosaccharides, fructo-oligosaccharide (Fru) and 6'-galacto-oligosaccharide (Gal) were added to a basal diet at a level of 100 g/kg. The basal diet was given either ad libitum (group B) or at a level approximately 90% of the ad libitum intakes of the Fru and Gal groups (group BR). During a 50 d feeding period, feed intake, digestibilities of nutrients, and digesta retention times using liquid (Co-EDTA) and particulate (Cr-cell-wall constituents) markers were measured. The carcass and the contents of the stomach and caecum were sampled on the last day of the experimental period. There was no significant difference in feed intake between groups other than BR. Addition of Fru and Gal to the basal diet resulted in increased crude ash digestibility and decreased crude protein and fat digestibilities. Mean retention times of digesta markers were increased by addition of Fru and Gal to the diet, and this was associated with enlargement of the caecum. Concentrations and amounts of total organic acids in the caecum were higher in groups Fru and Gal than the other groups. The amount of energy accumulated in the carcass of rats in the Gal group was significantly (P < 0.05) lower than that of rats fed on S but not Fru. Contributions to energy accumulation tended to be different between Fru and Gal; these were associated with differences in composition of caecal organic acids and of fatty acids in body fat.

To compare the effects of fish oil and olive oil on the development of atherosclerosis in Watanabe heritable hyperlipidaemic (WHHL) rabbits, 6-week-old animals were given a daily dose (1·5 ml/kg body weight) of fish oil (n 10) or olive oil (n 10) by oral administration for 16 weeks. Plasma cholesterol and triacylglycerols were measured once monthly, and their concentrations in lipoproteins, together with susceptibility of LDL to oxidation were measured in vitro at the termination of the experiment. Aortic atherosclerosis was quantified biochemically and microscopically. After 4 weeks of treatment, and throughout the study thereafter, blood lipids were significantly (P < 0·05) lower in the fish-oil group than in the olive-oil group (cholesterol: 17·0 v. 30·3 mmol/l, triacylglycerols 2·97 v. 6·25 mmol/l, at termination). In the fish-oil group cholesterol was significantly lower in intermediate-density lipoproteins (2·69 v. 6·76 mmol/l) and VLDL (3·36 v. 11·51 mmol/l). Triacylglycerol levels of intermediate-density lipoproteins and VLDL in the fish-oil group were also significantly lower when compared with the olive-oil group (0·54 v 1·36 mmol/l and 0·92 v. 2·87 mmol/l respectively). No group differences were recorded for LDL- and HDL-cholesterol or triacylglycerol levels. A significantly higher oxidation of LDL was recorded 1 h after exposure to CuSO4 in the fish-oil group when compared with the olive-oil group (0·465 v. 0·202, arbitrary units). The following indicators of atherosclerosis development were significantly lower in the fish-oil group than in the olive-oil group: the cholesterol content (mg/g tissue) in the ascending aorta (29·8 v.48·9), the intima:media value (4·81 v. 18·24) and the area of intima (0·10 v. 0·57 mm2) in the thoracic aorta. It was concluded that fish-oil treatment decreased blood lipids and the development of aortic atherosclerosis in WHHL rabbits when compared with olive-oil treatment.

Two experiments were conducted to determine apparent ileal digestibility of amino acids (AIDAA) and nitrogen (AIDN) in cottonseed meal (CSM) and soyabean meal (SBM) fed to growing pigs. In the first experiment, twenty-four male pigs (37·3 (SE 2·7) kg) were individually penned and randomized to either CSM or SBM diets. The diets contained 40% of the protein meal (either CSM or SBM) in a wheat starch-sucrose (1:1, w/w) base containing vitamins and minerals, and Cr2O3 as an indigestible marker. Pigs were acclimated to the experimental diets over a 3d period and on day 4 through to day 14 were offered 1800g/d of the diet. Diets were offered in three meals/d from day 4 to day 11 and in eight meals/d from day 12 to day 13. After the eighth hourly-meal on day 14, twelve pigs were anaesthetized with halothane while the remaining twelve pigs were CO2-stunned and processed using commercial slaughter procedures. Ileal digesta were collected from a 1500 mm portion of the terminal ileum of each pig and subsequently analysed for amino acids, N, organic matter and Cr. Results indicated that AIDAA of CSM and SBM were lower when digesta were collected following CO2-stunning than when digesta were obtained under halothane anaesthesia. Consistently, AIDN in CSM (0·51 v. 0·56) and SBM (0·55 v. 0-71) were lower (P <0·05) in CO2-stunned pigs than in halothane-anaesthetized pigs. Furthermore, when digesta collection was conducted under halothane anaesthesia, AIDN of CSM was lower (P < 0·001) than that of SBM. In the second experiment, six male pigs (45 (SE 2·6) kg) were fitted with T-piece cannulas implanted in the terminal ileum, housed individually in metabolism cages, and randomly allocated to either CSM or SBM diets in a single reversal arrangement. Ileal digesta were collected for AIDAA and AIDN determination. Although statistical comparisons could not be made between the two experiments, the AIDAA and AIDN data obtained via cannulated pigs were similar to those values obtained using the halothane-anaesthesia method. Overall, the CO2-stunning method is not recommended for studies of amino acid or nitrogen ileal digestibilities, but may be useful for the study of other dietary constituents.

Egg-yolk protein hydrolysate (YPp) is an alternative protein source in formulas for infants with intolerance to cow's milk or soyabean protein, or for patients with intestinal disorders. However, the nutritional value of YPp has never been investigated. YPp was prepared by enzymic hydrolysis of delipidated yolk protein, which led to an average peptide length of 2.6 residues. Three experiments were performed. In Expt 1, we compared the intestinal absorption rate of YPp and soyabean protein hydrolysate (SPp) in rats. YPp and SPp solutions were injected into the duodenum of anaesthetized rats and blood samples were taken from the portal vein at 7, 15, 30, 60, and 120 min. A higher amino acid concentration in the serum of the YPp group demonstrated that YPp was absorbed faster than SPp. In Expt 2, the effects of dietary YPp and SPp on body-weight gain, protein efficiency ratio (PER) and feed efficiency ratio (FER) were determined. At the end of the experiment, body weight had increased in both groups, while PER and FER were significantly higher in rats fed on YPp. In Expt 3, to investigate the effects of dietary YPp and SPp on N metabolism, we determined the biological value and net protein utilization. Yolk protein was the reference protein. Biological value and net protein utilization values were very similar between animals fed on yolk protein and YPp diets, and significantly higher than in rats fed on the SPp diet. The present findings demonstrate that there is no adverse effect of hydrolysis of yolk protein on N utilization, and that the nutritive value of YPp is similar to that of yolk protein and superior to that of SPp.

The effects of dietary fish oil and digestible protein (DP) levels on muscle fatty acid composition and susceptibility to lipid peroxidation were studied in two representative fish species for human nutrition, from fresh and seawater, rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax). In rainbow trout, higher concentrations of dietary fat and DP led to higher weight gain (g/d) (P = 0.001 and P = 0.043 respectively). Additionally, an interaction effect was observed in this species, since the effect of DP was only evident when the dietary fat concentration was low (P = 0.043). A similar tendency was also observed in European sea bass, although with less marked differences among nutritional treatments. Trout fed on diets with a higher concentration of dietary fat had higher concentrations of intramuscular total and neutral lipids in the dorsal muscle (P = 0.005). Increased levels of dietary DP led to significantly lower concentrations of polar lipids in the dorsal muscle of both rainbow trout (P = 0.005) and European sea bass (P = 0.006). In the neutral fraction of intramuscular lipids of dorsal muscle the concentration of n-3 fatty acids was positively affected by the dietary fat concentration in both rainbow trout (P = 0.04) and sea bass (P = 0.001). Muscle homogenates from trout and sea bass fed on diets rich in fish oil showed a significantly higher susceptibility to oxidation than muscle homogenates from fish fed on low-fat diets (P = 0.001). The higher DP concentration also increased susceptibility to oxidation. Moreover, in rainbow trout an interaction effect was observed where the pro-oxidant effect was of higher magnitude when the dietary concentration of both nutrients, fat and protein, was high (P = 0.004).

Responses to supplemental dietary l-carnitine of broilers fed on diets with different levels of metabolizable energy (ME) were investigated using growth performance and some carcass measurements. Three isonitrogenous diets containing 13.5, 12.8 or 12.2 MJ ME/kg were formulated, with or without supplemental l-carnitine (50mg/kg) and fed ad libitum from 18 to 53 d of age. Supplemental l-carnitine increased body-weight gain (BWG) and improved feed conversion (FC) during the first 2 weeks of study. FC was also improved during the fourth week of the experiment. Weights of breast yield and thigh meat yield were significantly increased, whereas quantity and percentage of abdominal fat were reduced by supplemental l-carnitine. A significant interaction between supplemental dietary l-carnitine and dietary energy level was noted for BWG and FC during the second week of study.

During pregnancy, maternal plasma concentrations of the peroxidation-susceptible polyunsaturated fatty acids (polyenes) increase. In addition, the proportion of polyenes is higher in neonatal plasma than in maternal plasma. To study whether these increased amounts of polyenes affect antioxidant levels, we measured lipid-soluble antioxidants in maternal and neonatal plasmas obtained during thirty-five normal pregnancies. These values were then related to the degree of phospholipid-fatty acid unsaturation. Maternal plasma levels of tocopherols and lutein increased during pregnancy, as assessed at 14, 22, and 32 weeks of gestation. However, β-carotene levels decreased, and levels of other carotenoids remained unchanged. Retinol levels were only decreased at 32 weeks of gestation. The value for α-tocopherol: phospholipid-polyene unsaturation index (UI) also increased during pregnancy, despite the observed increase in UI. Corresponding ratios for several carotenoids and retinol, however, decreased during pregnancy. After delivery, maternal plasma levels of δ-tocopherol and β + γ-tocopherol, as well as β + γ-tocopherol: UI values, were lower than values at 32 weeks of gestation. Umbilical-cord plasma antioxidant levels and antioxidant: UI values, except retinol: UI, were significantly lower than maternal values. Significant and consistent cord ν. maternal correlations were observed for plasma levels of β + γ-tocopherol, lutein and β-carotene, but not for δ-tocopherol, α-tocopherol, lycopene, α-carotene, and retinol. In conclusion, although during pregnancy maternal plasma tocopherol levels increased concurrently with, or more than, fatty acid unsaturation in plasma phospholipids, the decrease in carotenoid: UI values during gestation, the decrease in maternal plasma levels of δ-tocopherol and β + γ-tocopherol after delivery, and the low neonatal antioxidant levels merit further investigation.

The effect of vitamin A on chicken intestinal mucosal morphology and functionality was tested in relation to severe and mild vitamin A deficiency and vitamin A repletion. Compared with rats and mice, chickens have a very quick response to a deficient dietary intake. Severe vitamin A deficiency altered the small intestine of chickens at both the biochemical and the morphological levels. It caused the loss of mucosal protein, reduced villus height and crypt depth and diminished activities of disaccharidases, transpeptidase and alkaline phosphate (EC 3.1.3.1). The ratios RNA-.DNA, RNA:protein and protein:DNA, and the DNA concentrations in 1 g intestinal tissue, together with morphological measurements, provided knowledge about the pattern of lesion. The results indicated that (1) lack of vitamin A influenced cellular hyperplasia as it caused an increase in DNA content and in the number of enterocytes per villus; (2) lack of vitamin A influenced cellular hypertrophy as it decreased the protein:DNA ratio. There was no difference in mucosal enzyme activity between the two deficient groups. The repletion group exhibited a remarkable increase in mucosal enzyme activity only 4 d after switching to the control diet. The evidence presented in our paper suggests that the low vitamin A supply interferes with the normal activity of chicken intestinal mucosa as it influences the processes of proliferation and maturation of enterocytes.