In 1883 Mr George Fry, F.L.S. described a series of observations which he had made upon silage. From these he drew the conclusion that if the conditions of silage making were such that the temperature exceeded 45° C. sweet brown silage resulted, but that if the temperature failed to rise above 40° C. then sour silage with a rather repulsive odour was produced. These results were obtained in the type of silos then commonly in use, which varied in depth generally between 12 and 18 feet, frequently had a considerable surface area and were filled comparatively slowly.

Animal bodies are composed of fat and non-fatty matter. The relative proportions of these two ingredients vary within wide limits but can be controlled by food. The non-fatty matter consists of water, protein and ash. The percentage of water varies with the age of the animal in a definite manner. This has been determined with tolerable certainty for cattle. The available evidence indicates that the same formula is applicable to pigs and, with slight modification, also to sheep, but these inferences require confirmation. The ratio of protein to ash is the same in sheep as in cattle but in pigs it is higher. In any case it does not alter with the age of the animal but it may be influenced to a certain extent by the food. Individual variation is wider in pigs than in ruminants. The average composition of the whole body at any stage can be calculated when the live weight and percentage of fat in it are known.

In this paper an examination is made of the processes operative and the limits of accuracy of the electrical method of determining soil moisture.

The resistance over a small plot is found to vary under similar conditions and it is concluded that these differences are most probably due to actual differences in moisture or other factors.

The effect of the distance apart of the electrodes is investigated and a probability of a minimum resistance between two electrodes being observed under certain conditions is indicated.

1. A number of varieties of winter wheat, known to vary considerably in degree of winter hardiness, were compared in the hardened condition with reference to the physical constants of the cell sap, and the content of dry matter, nitrogen, sugars and starch.

2. No constant relation was found between depression of the freezing point, specific conductivity, or hydrogen-ion concentration of the cell sap and relative frost hardiness.

3. Sugars accounted for 34 to 38 per cent, of the total osmotic pressure of the sap.

It has been known for a number of years that red clover and certain other cultivated leguminous plants, besides many other non-leguminous ones, are subject to attack from the eelworm, Tylenchus dipsaci.

Kühn (1881) gave an account of the disease produced in clover and lucerne. Later on Ritzema-Bos (1892) showed that the worm attacking clover was morphologically indistinguishable from that attacking rye, oats, hyacinth, carnation and several other cultivated plants and certain weeds. In England Miss Ormerod (1886–1900) dealt with the subject in many of her annual reports and gave a good account of the symptoms produced by Tylenchus dipsaci, pointing out in 1899 the differences between these symptoms and those produced by the fungus Sclerotinia trifoliorum.

Experiments have been described which had primarily as their object the investigation of the effect of varying moisture content in the green oat and tare crop on the type of silage produced from such forage. The magnitude of the changes affecting the constituents of the green crop under the different conditions of ensilage have also been detailed.

The main conclusions are summarized below:

The study of lactation has almost always been undertaken from one of two very diverse points of view, the physiological and the commercial. The chief aim of the physiologist has been to determine, either the origin of the various constituents of the milk and the method of their elaboration, or the extent to which internal secretions affect the flow of milk by their initiation, inhibition or stimulation of milk secretion. From the commercial or agricultural point of view, on the other hand, the chief interest has centred round the problem of the production of butter fat, and a very large number of experiments have been conducted to determine by what method of feeding a cow could be caused to give the maximum yield of milk with the highest percentage of fat.

It is well known that different flours vary enormously in respect of the size and shape of loaf they yield on baking. The factor which determines the quality of flour in this connection has been termed “strength” and the latter has been denned as “the capacity of flour for making large well-piled loaves”(1).

Many views have been held from time to time regarding the explanation of flour strength from the chemical standpoint. The earliest view was that strength was determined by the gluten content of the flour, which by virtue of its tenacity was able to retain in the bread the carbon dioxide produced as a result of the activity of the yeast. Many cases, however, were investigated where flours possessing a high gluten content were not so strong as a flour with a low content of gluten. Furthermore, no accepted regularity has been found to exist between the strength of flours and the water-holding or gas retaining capacity of their glutens.

One of the greatest problems of Russia's present economic policy is the restoration and development of farming, and in particular, cattlefarming. The war and revolution have, together with other things, destroyed enormous numbers of cattle, horses, pigs, etc., and thoroughly undermined the meat industry, as well as the sources of supply of working animals. A decrease of 50% below the former numbers of horses is the common state of things. The preservation of cattle-farms and studs is seldom met with, and the number of stock-producing animals is at least ten times less than formerly. The terrible drought threatens to bring into this sphere of national wealth even greater destruction. At the same time there can be no doubt that without the restoration and maintenance on a definite level of stud and cattle-farming, Russia cannot return to full economic activity. The present-day state of things demands that every effort be made, every possibility found and utilised, for increasing the number of domestic animals and for improving the methods of breeding and the breeds themselves.

The Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act 1906, Section 10, defines the expressions “soluble” and “insoluble” to mean that the fertilising constituent is soluble or insoluble in water, or, if specified in the invoice, to mean that the fertilising constituent is soluble to the extent guaranteed in a solution of citric acid, or other solvent, of the prescribed strength. In particular the section defines the percentage of soluble phosphate and the percentage of insoluble phosphate to mean respectively the percentage of tribasic phosphate of lime equivalent which, has been, or that which has not been, rendered soluble. “Citric solubility” under the Act is further and more definitely defined in the Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs General Regulations 1906 as follows:

“When, in an invoice relating to basic slag or basic superphosphate, it is specified that a certain percentage of the phosphate contained in the basic slag or superphosphate is soluble in citric acid, this shall be taken to mean that it is capable of being dissolved to the extent of such percentage when 5 grams of the fertiliser and 500 cubic centimetres of water, containing 10 grams of citric acid, are continuously agitated in a flask or bottle of about 1 litre capacity for the period of half an hour at the ordinary temperature.”

Male sterility in potatoes, that is the absence of pollen from the anthers, has been shown by one of us (Salaman(1)) to behave as a recessive to male fertility. The present paper is an account of some farther experiments in the genetics of this character, particularly of crosses between two varieties in which the reciprocals give different results.

Both quantity and quality of pollen were estimated by methods similar to those used by Salaman(1) Four empirical grades of quantity were employed, viz. “abundant,” “midium,” “small” and “very few grains.” The quality of the pollen was determined by mounting a sample in water and examining microscopically. Under this treatment living and presumably healthy grains swell up, appear spherical and translucent, whilst the pores become prominent. Such grains are termed “good.” Bad grains are generally smaller, irregular in outline, and often appear quite empty.

The assumption that plants feed in the soil just as they feed in water culture solution is unjustified and contrary to the facts. In modification of the usual hypothesis two possibilities are discussed.

1. The absorption of colloids by the plant.

2. The union of the root hair with soil and other mineral particles (so that the plant and the soil form one system) and the dissolution of the particle by the organic matter of the root hair so attached.

It has long been generally accepted that an animal requires more food in cold weather than in hob weather, that, in fact and within certain limits, an animal's food requirement increases as the temperature falls. The number of precise measurements however of the effect of change of temperature on food requirement is very small, and it was with the object of extending the knowledge of this important subject that the following investigation was undertaken.

In a recent communication, the results of an investigation into the digestibility of oat and tare silage were recorded. The desirability, however, of extending the scope of this initial work was recognised, in view of attempts which are being made to re-establish on a large scale the practice of ensilage in this country.

It was recently suggested by the writer that the neutral salt test for sourness in soils could be adapted for rapid qualitative purposes by using an alcoholic solution of potassium thiocyanate. This reagent becomes coloured in contact with soils deficient in strong bases, because of the presence of iron among the weak bases which are brought into solution from such soils by neutral salts.

This communication deals with the results of two experiments in which the “nitrogen-balance,” or difference between nitrogen-consumption and nitrogen-excretion by the cow, has been studied over prolonged periods, starting with the “dry” cow, not in calf, proceeding through the whole period of pregnancy and well into the period of active lactation.

Experiment 1 was performed throughout with the two cows, “dry” and not in calf, receiving a basal ration of hay to which was added increasing amounts of maize meal with a view to securing a progressively increasing consumption of nitrogen. This experiment lasted 196 days, during which period determinations of the nitrogen-balance were made on 90 days.

Experiment 2 was carried out similarly with two cows, and covered a period of 722 days, including 546 days on which determinations of the nitrogen-balance were made. Throughout the whole of this period one cow (Cow C) was maintained “dry” and not in calf, as control cow, whilst the other cow (Cow D) after 302 days became pregnant and its record was followed throughout the stages of pregnancy and parturition and for the first 136 days of active lactation.

The outstanding features of the results are as follows:

(1) With the progressive increase of nitrogen-consumption beyond the fundamental requirements of the dry cow the rate of nitrogen-retention steadily increases to a maximum and then falls. The maximum appears to be attained under the conditions of our experiment with a protein-supply in the neighbourhood of 2·4 kg. crude protein per 1000 kg. live-weight. There are indications that this figure may be independent of the nature of the foods fed along with hay.

(2) When the cow is maintained upon a ration which causes an initial nitrogen-retention the rate of retention falls steadily, but a very prolonged period—up to 90–100 days—may be necessary before nitrogenequilibrium is attained.

(3) Even after nitrogen-equilibrium is established and a relatively constant nitrogen-consumption is maintained, there may arise from time to time considerable deviations from equilibrium either in the positive or negative direction. It would appear therefore that for reliable work of this character long experimental periods are essential.

(4) The very earliest stages of pregnancy are marked by a profound disturbance of nitrogen metabolism, the requirement for maintenance of nitrogen-equilibrium being very sensibly increased. This additional requirement persists at a steadily reduced rate for some 15 to 20 weeks, after which it is very small. Over the whole period of pregnancy the average rate of nitrogen-retention was only about 2·4 gm. per day.

(5) During parturition and for a few days subsequently the output of nitrogen is very great and more than can be restored rapidly by food-consumption. With the experimental cow, giving barely three gallons of milk per day at most, some two to three weeks elapsed after calving before nitrogen-equilibrium was restored.

(6) It would appear that to maintain nitrogen-equilibrium during lactation, the food must supply from twice to three times the amount of nitrogen secreted in the milk, in addition to that required for the maintenance of equilibrium in the “dry” state. This represents a food-consumption which would be difficult to attain in the case of cows giving large yields of milk, and accounts for the familiar difficulty of maintaining the “condition” of such cows in the earlier stages of lactation.

In support and extension of the conclusions drawn in the earlier papers the following facts and deductions are submitted:

1. The only sparingly soluble substance, from a random collection examined, whose suspensions showed the same abnormal flocculation by calcium hydroxide that is shown by clay, were certain phosphates of iron aluminium and calcium. The abnormal flocculation of these phosphates is open to an explanation quite analogous to that already advanced for the flocculation of clay.

2. Until the amount of calcium hydroxide added to a suspension of clay or phosphate reaches a certain amount its abnormal flocculating power is not manifested. The amount required to produce the abnormal flocculation is greater for a fat clay than for a lean one. This is in agreement with the view that the abnormal flocculation is caused by a coagulation of emulsoid matter, for obviously such coagulation will not become dominant until a sufficient amount of the precipitant has been added.

3. The lime absorbed by a soil can be wholly and completely removed by a dilute acid treatment which cannot very appreciably decompose the unweathered minerals. It is therefore concluded that the absorption of lime by a soil is an absorption by the soil colloids and not by the unweathered minerals.

4. The ignition of a soil for a few minutes over a bunsen flame increases the amounts of iron and aluminium dissolved by acid. Evidence is brought to show that this is due to a destruction of the colloids which bind the particles together, and a consequent exposure of a larger surface.

5. The effect of a partial ignition on the base absorbing power of soils and subsoils is described and the results are claimed to be in agreement with the view that the particles in the aggregates are bound together by gelatinous colloidal matter.

Although many schemes have been proposed for a classification of soils, not any single one seems to have found general acceptance. It is, however, generally agreed that with any method, a final subdivision based on the texture of the soil is highly desirable, even though it only be the sands, loams, and clays of common parlance. Granted then that a classification based on mechanical analyses is called for—though not necessarily as the primary division into groups—it is here proposed to examine some of the various methods so far put forward for dealing with the results of mechanical analyses. Tables of analytical results in themselves are unwieldy and make decidedly uninteresting reading. The comparison of a large number of soils is a slow and tedious process, if it is accomplished only by a study of the figures.

The following solutions were tested with respect to their fungicidal properties towards the “powdery,” conidial stage of S. Humuli on young hop-leaves in the greenhouse:

(1) Disodium arsenate, containing 0·096 per cent. As2O5 proved fungicidal and killed also patches of leaf-cells underlying the mildewpatches, but did not otherwise injure the leaf. A solution containing 0·02 per cent. As2O5 was fungicidal without killing any leaf-cells.

(2) Trisodium arsenate containing 0·077 per cent. As2O5 proved fungicidal.

(3) Dicalcium arsenate. containing 0·048 per cent. As2O5 proved fungicidal; containing 0·024 per cent. As2O5 the solution was apparently just fungicidal, but with 0·01 per cent. As2O5 the solution was practically non-fungicidal.

(4) Tricalcium arsenate containing 0·076 per cent. As2O5 is fungicidal; containing 0·02 per cent. As2O5 it possesses some fungicidal value, but with 0·01 per cent. As2O5 it is practically non-fungicidal.

(5) The following constituents of lime-sulphur wash proved nonfungicidal: calcium sulphate, sulphite, thiosulphate, hydroxyhydrosulphide.

(6) Calcium polysulphide, at a strength of 0·11 per cent., proved fungicidal.

The present paper may, at first sight, appear to contain much that is irrelevant to the subject as indicated in the title. But, whilst the primary object throughout was to trace the inheritance of susceptibility and resistance to rust attack, experience shows that a study of the environmental conditions is also essential for a correct understanding of this problem.