The enterohormone glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is required to amplify glucose-induced insulin secretion that facilitates peripheral glucose utilisation. Alteration in GLP-1 secretion during obesity has been reported but is still controversial. Due to the high adaptability of intestinal cells to environmental changes, we hypothesised that the density of GLP-1-producing cells could be modified by nutritional factors to prevent the deterioration of metabolic condition in obesity. We quantified L-cell density in jejunum samples collected during Roux-en-Y gastric bypass in forty-nine severely obese subjects analysed according to their fat consumption. In mice, we deciphered the mechanisms by which a high-fat diet (HFD) makes an impact on enteroendocrine cell density and function. L-cell density in the jejunum was higher in obese subjects consuming >30 % fat compared with low fat eaters. Mice fed a HFD for 8 weeks displayed an increase in GLP-1-positive cells in the jejunum and colon accordingly to GLP-1 secretion. The regulation by the HFD appears specific to GLP-1-producing cells, as the number of PYY (peptide YY)-positive cells remained unchanged. Moreover, genetically obese ob/ob mice did not show alteration of GLP-1-positive cell density in the jejunum or colon, suggesting that obesity per se is not sufficient to trigger the mechanism. The higher L-cell density in HFD-fed mice involved a rise in L-cell terminal differentiation as witnessed by the increased expression of transcription factors downstream of neurogenin3 (Ngn3). We suggest that the observed increase in GLP-1-positive cell density triggered by high fat consumption in humans and mice might favour insulin secretion and therefore constitute an adaptive response of the intestine to balance diet-induced insulin resistance.

The increased prevalence of lifestyle diseases, such as the metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), calls for more knowledge on dietary treatments targeting the specific metabolic pathways involved in these conditions. Several studies have shown a protein preload before a meal to be effective in lowering the postprandial glycaemic response in healthy individuals and patients with T2DM. The aim of the present study was to assess the effect of a marine protein hydrolysate (MPH) from Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) on postprandial glucose metabolism in healthy, middle-aged to elderly subjects. This double-blind cross-over trial (n 41) included two study days with 4–7 d wash-out in between. The intervention consisted of 20 mg of MPH (or casein as control) per kg body weight given before a breakfast meal. The primary outcome was postprandial response in glucose metabolism, measured by samples of serum glucose, insulin and plasma glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) in 20 min intervals for 180 min. In a mixed-model regression analysis, no differences were observed between MPH and control for postprandial glucose concentration (mean difference: −0·04 (95 % CI –0·17, 0·09) mmol/l; P = 0·573) or GLP-1 concentration (mean difference between geometric means: 1·02 (95 % CI 0·99, 1·06) pmol/l; P = 0·250). The postprandial insulin concentration was significantly lower after MPH compared with control (mean difference between geometric means: 1·067 (95 % CI 1·01, 1·13) mIU/l; P = 0·032). Our findings demonstrate that a single dose of MPH before a breakfast meal reduces postprandial insulin secretion, without affecting blood glucose response or GLP-1 levels, in healthy individuals. Further studies with repeated dosing and in target groups with abnormal glucose control are warranted.

Acquisition of the gastrointestinal microbiota at birth may have long-term health impacts. We longitudinally characterised major microbial communities in the faeces of a cohort of infants using molecular methods. Faecal samples were prospectively obtained at several time points after birth from eighty-three infants. Real-time PCR using SYBR green and primers targeted at 16S rRNA gene sequences were used to quantify Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus acidophilus group, Bacteroides–Prevotella group, Enterobacteriaceae, Enterococcus, Clostridium coccoides–Eubacterium rectale group, Clostridium leptum group and Staphylococcus. Microbial community abundance was expressed relative to amplification of sequences conserved universally for domain bacteria. Faecal copy number of 16S rRNA genes increased non-significantly from a mean of 4·1 × 109/g on day 1 to 1·1 × 1010/g on day 4. All microbial communities were detected from day 1 after birth. Enterobacteriaceae and lactobacilli predominated on day 1, while bifidobacteria and staphylocci increased on day 4. Bacteroides–Prevotella and C. coccoides–E. rectale increased by day 180. C. leptum was detected in half of the cohort at birth and in a slightly larger percentage by 6 months. Caesarean section was associated with delayed colonisation by several bacterial communities. Higher socio-economic status was associated with more abundant lactobacilli and Bacteroides–Prevotella at 90 and 180 d. Supplemental feeding was associated with a reduction in Enterobacteriaceae. Microbial colonisation of the gut was well established on the first day of birth, and relative abundance of microbial communities was influenced by mode of delivery, socio-economic status and supplemental feeding. These findings may have relevance to infant nutrition and growth.

Pregnancy and birth cohorts have been utilised extensively to investigate the developmental origins of health and disease, particularly in relation to understanding the aetiology of obesity and related cardiometabolic disorders. Birth and pregnancy cohorts have been utilised extensively to investigate this area of research. The aim of the present review was twofold: first to outline the necessity of measuring cardiometabolic risk in children; and second to outline how it can be assessed. The major outcomes thought to have an important developmental component are CVD, insulin resistance and related metabolic outcomes. Conditions such as the metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes and CHD all tend to have peak prevalence in middle-aged and older individuals but assessments of cardiometabolic risk in childhood and adolescence are important to define early causal factors and characterise preventive measures. Typically, researchers investigating prospective cohort studies have relied on the thesis that cardiovascular risk factors, such as dyslipidaemia, hypertension and obesity, track from childhood into adult life. The present review summarises some of the evidence that these factors, when measured in childhood, may be of value in assessing the risk of adult cardiometabolic disease, and as such proceeds to describe some of the methods for assessing cardiometabolic risk in children.

The Dutch Healthy Diet index (DHD-index) was developed using data from two 24 h recalls (24hR) and appeared useful to evaluate diet quality in Dutch adults. As many epidemiologic studies use FFQ, we now estimated the DHD-index score using FFQ data. We compared whether this score showed similar associations with participants' characteristics, micronutrient intakes, and biomarkers of intake and metabolism compared with the DHD-index using 24hR data. Data of 121 Dutch participants of the European Food Consumption Validation study were used. Dietary intake was assessed by two 24hR and a 180-item FFQ. Biomarkers measured were serum total cholesterol and carotenoids, EPA + DHA in plasma phospholipids and 24 h urinary Na. A correlation of 0·48 (95 % CI 0·33, 0·61) was observed between the DHD-index score based on 24hR data and on FFQ data. Classification of participants into the same tertiles of the DHD-index was achieved for 57 %. Women showed higher DHD-index scores. Energy intake was inversely associated with both DHD-index scores. Furthermore, age and intakes of folate, Fe, Mg, K, vitamin B6 and vitamin C were positively associated with both DHD-index scores. DHD-index scores showed acceptable correlations with the four combined biomarkers taking energy intake into account (r24hR 0.55; rFFQ 0.51). In conclusion, the DHD-index score based on FFQ data shows similar associations with participants' characteristics, energy intake, micronutrient intake and biomarkers compared with the score based on 24hR data. Furthermore, ranking of participants was acceptable for both methods. FFQ data may therefore be used to assess diet quality using the DHD-index in Dutch populations.

Morbid obesity is a growing problem worldwide and has subsequently resulted in a wide application of bariatric surgery to achieve long-term weight loss and improvement of obesity-related co-morbidities. In spite of these clinical benefits, vitamin deficiencies are common after bariatric surgery; therefore, lifelong multivitamin supplementation (MVS) is recommended. However, patient adherence to MVS intake is generally poor. The aim of this narrative review is to analyse which factors influence the adherence of MVS intake after bariatric surgery. To provide an extensive overview, we will discuss the different factors that influence MVS use in patients who underwent bariatric surgery, but also review the literature on MVS in other patient groups.

Obesity is a prevalent medical condition in dogs caused by the excess accumulation of fat, with negative effects on quality of life, longevity and the risk of developing associated pathologies. However, it is unclear how frequently first-opinion veterinarians record dogs as overweight (OW) or obese in medical records, and what factors determine when they do. Data sourced through the Small Animal Surveillance Network were used to determine the relative frequency of recording OW status (obesity or OW) in dogs presented to the UK first-opinion practices. Cases were identified using a search of clinical record-free text for relevant keywords. A case–control study was then conducted, comparing dogs where the OW status was recorded with a control group of obese dogs with no diagnosis recorded. Of 49 488 consultations, the OW status was recorded in 671 dogs (relative frequency 1·4 %). Using multiple logistic regression, the OW status of a dog was more likely to be recorded when the consultation was for osteoarthritis (OR 5·42; 95 % CI 2·09, 14·07; P < 0·001) or lameness (OR 2·02; 95 % CI 1·20, 3·42; P = 0·006). Furthermore, the OW status was more commonly recorded in dogs that were members of a practice health scheme (OR 5·35; 95 % CI 1·57, 18·17; P = 0·04) and less commonly recorded in microchipped dogs (OR 0·43; 95 % CI 0·41, 0·91; P = 0·02). These results suggest that OW and obesity are underdiagnosed in the first-opinion practice. However, a presentation for orthopaedic disease appears a key prompt for recording the OW status. Further studies are now warranted to determine the reasons for such marked underdiagnosis.

Breast milk is the only source of the essential amino acid tryptophan (TRP) in breast-fed infants. Low levels of TRP could have implications for infant neurodevelopment. The objectives of the present study were to compare the relationship of TRP and its neuroactive pathway metabolites kynurenine (Kyn) and kynurenic acid (KynA) in preterm and term expressed breast milk (EBM) in the first 14 d following birth, and the relationship of TRP metabolism to maternal stress and immune status. A total of twenty-four mothers were recruited from Cork University Maternity Hospital: twelve term (>38 weeks) and twelve preterm (<35 weeks). EBM samples were collected on days 7 and 14. Free TRP, Kyn and KynA were measured using HPLC, total TRP using MS, cytokines using the Meso Scale Discovery (MSD) assay system, and cortisol using a cortisol ELISA kit. Although total TRP was higher in preterm EBM in comparison with term EBM (P < 0·05), free TRP levels were lower (P < 0·05). Kyn, KynA and the Kyn:TRP ratio increased significantly in term EBM from day 7 to day 14 (P < 0·05), but not in preterm EBM. TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-8 were higher in day 7 preterm and term EBM in comparison with day 14. There were no significant differences between term and preterm EBM cortisol levels. Increased availability of total TRP, lower levels of free TRP and alterations in the temporal dynamics of TRP metabolism in preterm compared with term EBM, coupled with higher EBM inflammatory markers on day 7, may have implications for the neurological development of exclusively breast-fed preterm infants.

Dietary fatty acid (FA) composition in early postnatal life can modulate growth and development and later metabolic health. Investigating programming effects of early dietary FA manipulations in rodents may be stressful and complicated due to the need of artificial feeding techniques. It is largely unknown to what extent breast milk (BM) FA composition can be directly manipulated by the diet. We exposed dams to different dietary FA compositions from postnatal day (PN) 2 until PN28. Dams with litters were randomly assigned to control (CTRL), high-medium-chain FA (MCFA), low-linoleic acid (LowLA), high-n-3 long-chain PUFA (n-3LCP) or high-n-3LCP and MCFA (n-3LCP/MCFA) diets, and diets were continued after weaning until PN28. FA compositions were determined in feeds, milk and in erythrocytes. BM MCFA content was independent from dietary MCFA intake. In contrast, the LowLA diet reduced BM LA content by about 50 % compared with the CTRL diet at PN7. BM of dams fed the n-3LCP or n-3LCP/MCFA diet contained about 6-fold more n-3 LCP than BM of the dams fed the CTRL diet at PN7. These changes in milk FA composition established after 5 d of dietary exposure did not further change over the lactation period. At PN28, the erythrocyte FA composition of the male pups correlated with analysed milk FA profiles. In conclusion, manipulation of the diet of lactating mice can strongly and rapidly affect BM FA composition, in particular of n-6 LA and n-3 LCP. Our present findings will facilitate mechanistic studies on the programming of adult metabolic health by dietary FA in the early postnatal period via direct and selective manipulation of the maternal diet.

A child's diet is an important determinant of growth and development. Because of this, the accurate assessment of dietary intake in young children remains a challenge. A systematic search of studies validating FFQ methodologies in children 12 to 36 months of age was completed. English-language articles published until March 2016 were searched using three electronic databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE and CINAHL). Quality assessment of the identified studies was carried out using The Reduced Summary Score and EURopean micronutrient RECommendations Aligned (EURRECA) scoring system. Seventeen studies were included and categorised according to whether they reflected long-term (≥7 d) or short-term (<7 d) intake, or used a biomarker. A total score for each micronutrient was calculated from the mean of the correlation coefficients weighted by the study quality score. At least three validation studies per micronutrient were required for inclusion. Fifteen studies (83 %) that considered validity of the FFQ in assessing nutrient intakes had quality scores from 2·5 to 6·0. Of those, ten (67 %) studies found FFQ to have good correlations in assessing dietary intake (>0·4). Of the nutrients with three or more studies available, FFQ validated using a reference method reflecting short-term intake had a good weighted correlation for Ca (0·51), and acceptable weighted correlations for vitamin C (0·31) and Fe (0·33). Semi-quantitative FFQ were shown to be valid and reproducible when estimating dietary intakes at a group level, and are an acceptable instruments for estimating intakes of Ca, vitamin C and Fe in children 12 to 36 months of age.

Accurate estimation of food portion size is critical in dietary studies. Hands are potentially useful as portion size estimation aids; however, their accuracy has not been tested. The aim of the present study was to test the accuracy of a novel portion size estimation method using the width of the fingers as a ‘ruler’ to measure the dimensions of foods (‘finger width method’), as well as fists and thumb or finger tips. These hand measures were also compared with household measures (cups and spoons). A total of sixty-seven participants (70 % female; age 32·7 (sd 13·7) years; BMI 23·2 (sd  3·5) kg/m2) attended a 1·5 h session in which they estimated the portion sizes of forty-two pre-weighed foods and liquids. Hand measurements were used in conjunction with geometric formulas to convert estimations to volumes. Volumes determined with hand and household methods were converted to estimated weights using density factors. Estimated weights were compared with true weights, and the percentage difference from the true weight was used to compare accuracy between the hand and household methods. Of geometrically shaped foods and liquids estimated with the finger width method, 80 % were within ±25 % of the true weight of the food, and 13 % were within ±10 %, in contrast to 29 % of those estimated with the household method being within ±25 % of the true weight of the food, and 8 % being within ±10 %. For foods that closely resemble a geometric shape, the finger width method provides a novel and acceptably accurate method of estimating portion size.

In human subjects, the risk of becoming overweight (OW) in adulthood is largely determined early in childhood. However, early-life factors have not been considered for feline obesity. A total of eighty colony cats, fed ad libitum, were studied; various breeds, ages and sex were included, with thirty-six (45 %) being OW and forty-four (55 %) being of ideal weight (IW). The effects of various factors (including age, sex, neuter status, breed (pure v. mixed), mean daily food intake (FI), housing status (indoor with outdoor access v. exclusively indoor) and body weight at 1 year of age (BW1y)) on weight status were assessed. Initial statistical analyses identified BW1y as the main significant variable. Body weight (BW) and FI were then assessed between 1 and 8·5 years of age, with group differences (OW v. IW) noted for BW, which increased significantly with age only in the OW group (P < 0·001). However, no difference in BW (P = 0·17) was noted when BW1y was included as a covariate in the model. FI did not change with age in either group. Finally, given the importance of BW1y, changes in BW from 3 to 12 months were then assessed with BW at 3 months of age included as a covariate. Whereas at 3 months of age, no group difference in BW was observed, a faster rate of weight gain was seen in OW cats. In conclusion, as in human subjects, the rate of growth is a key risk factor for cats becoming OW, although the factors responsible are currently not known.

Identifying factors that contribute to the preservation of cognitive function is imperative to maintaining quality of life in advanced years. Of modifiable risk factors, diet quality has emerged as a promising candidate to make an impact on cognition. The objective of this study was to evaluate associations between empirically derived dietary patterns and cognitive function. This study included 18 080 black and white participants aged 45 years and older from the REasons for Geographic And Racial Differences in Stroke (REGARDS) cohort. Principal component analysis on data from the Block98 FFQ yielded five dietary patterns: convenience, plant-based, sweets/fats, Southern, and alcohol/salads. Incident cognitive impairment was defined as shifting from intact cognitive status (score >4) at first assessment to impaired cognitive status (score ≤4) at latest assessment, measured by the Six-Item Screener. Learning, memory and executive function were evaluated with the Word List Learning, Word List Delayed Recall, and animal fluency assessments. In fully adjusted models, greater consumption of the alcohol/salads pattern was associated with lower odds of incident cognitive impairment (highest quintile (Q5) v. lowest quintile (Q1): OR 0·68; 95 % CI 0·56, 0·84; P for trend 0·0005). Greater consumption of the alcohol/salads pattern was associated with higher scores on all domain-specific assessments and greater consumption of the plant-based pattern was associated with higher scores in learning and memory. Greater consumption of the Southern pattern was associated with lower scores on each domain-specific assessment (all P < 0·05). In conclusion, dietary patterns including plant-based foods and alcohol intake were associated with higher cognitive scores, and a pattern including fried food and processed meat typical of a Southern diet was associated with lower scores.

Little is known regarding optimal vitamin D status in adult dogs. To date no studies on vitamin D supplementation for improving vitamin D status have been reported for adult dogs. The aims of this study were to identify dogs with low vitamin D status and evaluate an oral dosage of cholecalciferol (D3) for effectiveness in increasing vitamin D status. For this, forty-six privately owned dogs were evaluated. Of the dogs, thirty-three (or 71·7 %) had serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) concentrations less than 100 ng/ml, a minimum previously suggested for vitamin D sufficiency in dogs. Subsequently, thirteen dogs were enrolled in a supplementation trial. Dogs were given either a D3 supplement (n 7; 2·3 µg/kg0·75) or olive oil placebo (n 6) daily with food. Serum concentrations of 25(OH)D were determined at weeks 1, 3 and 6, and at the trial end. Only at the trial end (weeks 9–10) was 25(OH)D significantly greater (P = 0·05) in supplemented v. placebo dogs. Serum concentrations of 24R,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol determined at the trial end were about 40 % of that of 25(OH)D3 and not significantly different between the groups. Concentrations of parathyroid hormone, ionised Ca, P and creatinine measured in initial and final serum samples indicated supplementation caused no toxicity. We conclude that vitamin D3 supplementation at a dosage near the National Research Council recommended safe-upper limit was not effective for rapidly raising serum 25(OH)D concentrations in healthy, adult dogs. Further work is needed in evaluating the metabolism of orally administered D3 in dogs before dosing recommendations can be made.

Previous research suggests that monosodium glutamate (MSG) may have a biphasic effect on appetite, increasing appetite within a meal with its flavour-enhancing effect, but enhancing subsequent satiety due to its proposed role as a predictor of protein content. The present study explored this by assessing the impact of a 450 g soup preload differing in MSG concentration (1 % MSG added (MSG+) or no MSG (MSG–)) and nutrient content (low-energy control or high-energy carbohydrate or high-energy protein) on rated appetite and ad libitum intake of a test meal in thirty-five low-restraint male volunteers using a within-participant design. Protein-rich preloads significantly reduced intake at the test meal and resulted in more accurate energy compensation than did carbohydrate-rich preloads. This energy compensation was stronger in the MSG+ protein conditions when compared with MSG+ carbohydrate conditions. No clear differences in rated appetite were seen in MSG or the macronutrient conditions alone during preload ingestion or 45 min after intake. Overall, these findings indicate that MSG may act to further improve energy compensation when provided in a protein-rich context.

Canine cognitive dysfunction (CCD) is an age-dependent neurodegenerative condition characterised by changes in decline in learning and memory patterns. The neurodegenerative features of CCD in ageing dogs and cats are similar to human ageing and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Discovering neuroprotective disease-modifying therapies against CCD and AD is a major challenge. Strong evidence supports the role of amyloid β peptide deposition and oxidative stress in the pathophysiology of CCD and AD. In both the human and canine brain, oxidative damage progressively increases with age. Dietary antioxidants from natural sources hold a great promise in halting the progression of CCD and AD. Withania somnifera (WS), an Ayurvedic tonic medicine, also known as ‘Indian ginseng’ or ashwagandha has a long history of use in memory-enhancing therapy but there is a dearth of studies on its neuroprotective effects. The objective of this study was to investigate whether WS extract can protect against Aβ peptide- and acrolein-induced toxicity. We demonstrated that treatment with WS extract significantly protected the human neuroblastoma cell line SK-N-SH against Aβ peptide and acrolein in various cell survival assays. Furthermore, treatment with WS extract significantly reduced the generation of reactive oxygen species in SK-N-SH cells. Finally, our results showed that WS extract is also a potent inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase activity. Thus, our initial findings indicate that WS extract may act as an antioxidant and cholinergic modulator and may have beneficial effects in CCD and AD therapy.

Obesity indicators are known to predict the presence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM); however, evidence for which indicator best identifies undiagnosed T2DM in the Indian population is still very limited. In the present study we examined the utility of different obesity indicators to identify the presence of undiagnosed T2DM and determined their appropriate cut point for each obesity measure. Individuals were recruited from the large-scale population-based Kerala Diabetes Prevention Program. Oral glucose tolerance tests was performed to diagnose T2DM. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analyses were used to compare the association of different obesity indicators with T2DM and to determine the optimal cut points for identifying T2DM. A total of 357 new cases of T2DM and 1352 individuals without diabetes were identified. The mean age of the study participants was 46⋅4 (sd 7⋅4) years and 62 % were men. Waist circumference (WC), waist:hip ratio (WHR), waist:height ratio (WHtR), BMI, body fat percentage and fat per square of height were found to be significantly higher (P < 0⋅001) among those with diabetes compared with individuals without diabetes. In addition, ROC for WHR (0⋅67; 95 % 0⋅59, 0⋅75), WHtR (0⋅66; 95 % 0⋅57, 0⋅75) and WC (0⋅64; 95 % 0⋅55, 0⋅73) were shown to better identify patients with T2DM. The proposed cut points with an optimal sensitivity and specificity for WHR, WHtR and WC were 0⋅96, 0⋅56 and 86 cm for men and 0⋅88, 0⋅54 and 83 cm for women, respectively. The present study has shown that WHR, WHtR and WC are better than other anthropometric measures for detecting T2DM in the Indian population. Their utility in clinical practice may better stratify at-risk patients in this population than BMI, which is widely used at present.

Several individual components of the Mediterranean diet have been shown to offer protection against prostate cancer. The present study is the first to investigate the association between adherence to the Mediterranean diet and the relative risk of prostate cancer. We also explored the usefulness of the Mediterranean Diet Score (MDS) in a non-Mediterranean population. FFQ data were obtained from 1482 incident prostate cancer patients and 1108 population-based controls in the Cancer of the Prostate in Sweden (CAPS) study. We defined five MDS variants with different components or using either study-specific intakes or intakes in a Greek reference population as cut-off values between low and high intake of each component. Unconditional logistic regression was used to estimate the relative risk of prostate cancer for high and medium v. low MDS, as well as potential associations with the individual score components. No statistically significant association was found between adherence to the Mediterranean diet based on any of the MDS variants and prostate cancer risk (OR range: 0·96–1·19 for total prostate cancer, comparing high with low adherence). Overall, we found little support for an association between the Mediterranean diet and prostate cancer in this Northern European study population. Despite potential limitations inherent in the study or in the build-up of a dietary score, we suggest that the original MDS with study-specific median intakes as cut-off values between low and high intake is useful in assessing the adherence to the Mediterranean diet in non-Mediterranean populations.

Studies on the nutritional status of vegetarians in Spain are lacking. Prevention of vitamin B12 deficiency is the main concern, as dietary sources are of animal origin. The present study aimed to evaluate vitamin B12 and folate status of Spanish vegetarians using classical markers and functional markers. Participants were adult and healthy lacto-ovo vegetarians (forty-nine subjects) and vegans (fifty-four subjects) who underwent blood analyses and completed a FFQ. Serum vitamin B12, homocysteine (Hcy), methylmalonic acid (MMA), erythrocyte folate and haematological parameters were determined. The effects of the type of plant-based diet, and the intake of supplements and foods were studied by a FFQ. Mean erythrocyte folate was 1704 (sd 609) nmol/l. Clinical or subclinical vitamin B12 deficiency was detected in 11 % of the subjects (MMA>271 nmol/l) and 33 % of the participants showed hyperhomocysteinaemia (Hcy>15 µmol/l). Regarding plant-based diet type, significantly higher Hcy was observed in lacto-ovo vegetarians compared with vegans (P = 0·019). Moreover, use of vitamin B12 supplements involved an improvement of vitamin B12 status but further increase in erythrocyte folate (P = 0·024). Consumption of yoghurts was weakly associated with serum vitamin B12 adequacy (P = 0·049) and that of eggs with lower Hcy (P = 0·030). In conclusion, Spanish vegetarians present high folate status but vitamin B12 subclinical deficiency was demonstrated using functional markers. The lack of influence of dietary sources on functional markers and the strong effect of vitamin B12 supplement intake emphasise the need of cobalamin supplementation in both lacto-ovo vegetarians and vegans.

Butyric acid has been shown to have suppressive effects on inflammation and diseases related to the intestinal tract. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether supplementation of two glycerol esters, monobutyrin (MB) and tributyrin (TB), would reach the hindgut of rats, thus having an effect on the caecal profile of SCFA, microbiota composition and some risk markers associated with chronic inflammation. For this purpose, rats were fed high-fat diets after adding MB (1 and 5 g/kg) and TB (5 g/kg) to a diet without any supplementation (high-fat control; HFC). A low-fat (LF) diet was also included. In the liver, total cholesterol concentrations, LDL-cholesterol concentrations, LDL:HDL ratio, and succinic acid concentrations were reduced in rats given the MB and TB (5 g/kg) diets, compared with the group fed the HFC diet. These effects were more pronounced in MB than TB groups as also expressed by down-regulation of the gene Cyp8b1. The composition of the caecal microbiota in rats fed MB and TB was separated from the group fed the HFC diet, and also the LF diet, as evidenced by the absence of the phylum TM7 and reduced abundance of the genera Dorea (similar to LF-fed rats) and rc4-4. Notably, the caecal abundance of Mucispirillum was markedly increased in the MB group compared with the HFC group. The results suggest that dietary supplementation of MB and TB can be used to counteract disturbances associated with a HFC diet, by altering the gut microbiota, and decreasing liver lipids and succinic acid concentrations.