The Twentieth Century can be looked back upon as a period in which a number of metal alloys unknown to previous centuries were introduced Some were alloys in unusual combinations of previously-used metals, but also elements little used earlier. Some of these alloys have already had their day and exist now only in museum collections, where they may also present problems of preservation. Many metals lost their traditional applications or added entirely new ones. Elements such as uranium and the semimetals that had been of interest only to the ceramist at the start of the century are now the bases of industries unforseen only a hundred years ago. From this it is concluded that predictions for the present century are uncertain.

The ceramic technology used to construct and fire an image of a human figurine excavated from a 16,000 year old layer at the archaeological site of Maina on the Yenesei River in southern Siberia is reconstructed using x-radiography, x-ray diffraction, optical and scanning electron microscopy with simultaneous energy dispersive x-ray analysis, and electron beam microprobe analysis. Evidence is provided from the archaeological excavation as well as radiocarbon dating. Comparative studies of the clayey soils at the site add contextual and environmental evidence to establish this remarkable technology as having been carried out at the site using a local clay-loam resource.

This paper discusses the results of a pilot study using Proton Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE) analysis of gold granulated objects from the Bronze Age site of Tell el-Ajjul in Southern Palestine obtained with the Oxford University proton microprobe. Using modern granulated samples with known smithing processes as points of comparison, it is demonstrated how information on ancient joining practices may be accurately gauged. The importance of characterizing objects of known provenance is emphasized in a discussion of archaeological context. It is argued that the building of a large Mediterranean-wide database of granulation analyses can add new depths to our understanding of temporal, social, cultural and technological relationships in the past.

In the early modern age Japan was a kingdom rich in metal resources. A lot of gold, silver and copper were produced and exported to foreign countries, nevertheless Japan maintained a national isolation policy. The Iwami silver mine located in Shimane prefecture was the representative silver mine that prospered most. It produced about 10 % of the world's silver output. It is now mostly abandoned and reduced to ruins. Only a famous picture scroll remains to indicate its real activities. Through archaeological excavation started in 1983, it is becoming clear that extensive remains of mining and smelting are preserved. From 1996 scientific investigation of the excavated remains has been conducted. During excavation, and confirmed by scientific research, we recognized that the artifacts deposited during both the mining of the silver ore and the smelting process could be classified into two artifactual types; objects and fragments produced in the dressing process that were not influenced by a heating process and objects influenced by a heating process and produced by smelting and refining. The low grade ore, waste and tailings (remains after gravity concentration) that were scrapped in the dressing process are included in the former type, and the furnace fragments for smelting and refining, tuyeres (blast pipes) and slag and other smelter remains are of the latter type. The waste and tailings scrapped in the dressing process have not previously been studied. This study aimed at systematically investigating the dressing technology and estimating the ore grade through the evaluation of the range of variation in the waste and tailings left as scrap in the dressing process. The analytical results revealed the actual activities practiced at the Iwami silver mine in the dressing process.

Geochemical fingerprinting of obsidian sources was first applied in the Mediterranean region nearly four decades ago. Since then, a number of analytical methods (e.g. INAA, XRF, SEM/Microprobe, ICP-MS) have proven successful in distinguishing the Mediterranean island sources of Giali, Lipari, Melos, Palmarola, Pantelleria, and Sardinia. Moreover, recent geoarchaeological surveys of the central Mediterranean sources have resulted in the more precise location and documentation of each obsidian flow or outcrop, and multiple chemical groups have been identified on at least three of the islands. The ability to specifically attribute artifacts to one of at least five obsidian flows in the Monte Arci region of Sardinia, for example, has enabled the study of specific patterns of source exploitation and the trade mechanisms which resulted in the distribution of obsidian hundreds of kilometers away during the Neolithic period (ca. 6000-3000 BC).

Results are presented here from the chemical analysis of 186 artifacts from several sites in Sardinia and Corsica as part of the largest and most comprehensive study of obsidian sources and trade in the Mediterranean. Analyses of large numbers of artifacts demonstrate the differential use of island subsources, which may be attributed to factors such as access (e.g. topography, distance from coast), size and frequency of nodules, and mechanical and visual properties. The patterns of source exploitation revealed by this study specifically support a down-the-line model of obsidian trade during the neolithic period. In addition, the spatial and chronological patterns of obsidian distribution may be used to address such issues as the colonization of the islands; the introduction of neolithic economies; and the increasing social complexity of neolithic and bronze age societies in the central Mediterranean.

The chronometric dating of ceramic objects is normally achieved by thermoluminscence techniques (TL). Here we report both TL and a radiocarbon measurements on a Chinese earthenware hu jar (Harvard University Art Museums LTL1.2001.23 a,b). TL dates were obtained from earthenware core samples using established methods. The radiocarbon date was obtained from an organic coating present on the jar surface. The coating was preliminarily identified as urushi by a comparison of its FTIR absorption spectrum to absorption spectra obtained from modern and ancient lacquer standards. The material was found to be insoluble in a variety of solvents, mineral acids, and bases. Combustion and elemental analysis revealed that 64% of the coating mass was carbon. C measurement by AMS was carried out on a 3.9 mg sample of chemically cleaned lacquer. This measurement generated a date of 2191 ± 38 BP. Calibration of this measurement placed the age of the jar between 390BC and 160 BC at the 95% confidence interval. The calibrated radiocarbon date corroborated the TL measurement placing the jar at between 2400 and 1500 years old (400 BC to 500 AD). These findings also agreed with stylistic evidence that the jar was produced during the Western Han period (206 BC-AD 9). The literature on urushi composition, its pigment compatibility, its high carbon content, its apparent chemical stability, and the small sample required for C-accelerator mass spectrometry suggests that other lacquer-coated objects might be dated using a similar approach.

This paper presents a research project undertaken at the Cleveland Museum of Art to study and characterize its collection of more than one hundred and fifty Egyptian artifacts made from faience or frit. An overview of the project is presented here, followed by a summary of faience technology that draws upon other published studies as well as the insights gained during this project. Where appropriate, this technological discussion will be illustrated using examples of Egyptian artifacts studied during this project. For some objects discussion will be limited to one or two aspects of manufacture. However, the proposed manufacturing sequence of several key artifacts will be described more fully.

A multi-faceted approach to the study of these materials was designed. Examination procedures used to study the collection included microscopy (surface examination using a lowpowered microscope, and microstructural characterization of exposed fracture surfaces or small samples using a scanning electron microscope), structural analysis using Xero-radiography, and nondestructive qualitative compositional analysis of glazes and pastes using x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. Hardness testing using fine metal points graded to the Moh's scale, Munsell color evaluations and qualitative gloss determinations were also employed. Replication experiments were used extensively to understand visual features remaining on the surfaces of objects, to provide comparison standards for examination of fracture surfaces with magnification, and to test the validity of theories on paste recipes and forming practices.

The primary goal of the project was to provide accurate descriptions of the materials and technology of each object as possible. This included characterization of technological features such as glaze (probable application method, composition, color, and gloss), paste (grain size, color, hardness, composition, and extent of vitrification) and forming methods (modeling, molding, template, cores, wet working and/or dry working). Careful documentation of these features enabled detailed technological descriptions to be prepared for each artifact. This work also elucidated many aspects of faience production as it may have been practiced in ancient Egypt, and suggested directions for further study. It is hoped that in the future, technological criteria for dating artifacts that cannot be securely dated using traditional typological art historical criteria can be developed by the careful documentation of characteristics of the paste, glaze and forming processes.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the deterioration of tin ingots recovered from a late 14th century B.C. (Late Bronze Age) shipwreck off Ulu Burun (Kas) Turkey. As so little elemental tin has been excavated from underwater sites and preserved to date, the Ulu Burun ingots offer a unique opportunity to study the degradation products of ancient tin artifacts from a natural marine environment. The current investigation had three major objectives: to identify corrosion products; to confirm or refute the presence of ‘tin pest’, which has been asserted as one of the major reasons for the disintegration of the ingots and a topic of much controversy in the conservation and museum communities; and, finally, to contribute to the overall understanding of marine tin. The following instrumental techniques were used to analyze ingot samples: x-ray diffraction, atomic absorption, inductively coupled plasma emission spectroscopy. The results of the analysis have identified corrosion products that are characteristic of the type of products anticipated on tin objects from a marine environment. The presence of the controversial tin pest disease was confirmed in two of the six samples tested. Sample preparation appears to be a potential factor in the determination of tin pest using XRD.

In the last decades the conservation and protection of historical buildings, after theincreased atmospheric pollution, became a priority in all industrial countries. The natural stones exposed to a dramatically increased aggressive environment show their durability limits. The necessity to study new protective systems specifically projected to defend the materials according to the peculiar characteristics of each stone substrate. The complex heterogeneity of stone substrates demands an adaptable and efficient shielding strategy in order to satisfy the different protection requirements such as water repellency, permeability, photochemical and thermal stability and transparency. These characteristics, obviously, have to be maintained as long as possible. Such modulated multi-response behaviors can only be attempted with materials based on multifunctional copolymers. Different polymeric materials have been employed as coatings for building materials but these products were always transferred from industrial applications to the conservation of Cultural Heritage without a deep knowledge of their properties and without a real optimization of structures for stone protection.

Ten ancient mortars of dolomitic origin, used in the construction of the church of Santa María de Zamarce in Navarre, Spain, have been studied in order to define their composition and to characterize the type of binder employed. A complete characterization has been carried out including: morphological examination (visually and using optical microscopy); mineralogical studies (X-ray diffraction, XRD); chemical analysis (main components and soluble salts); grain size distribution and thermal studies (thermogravimetric and thermodifferential simultaneous analysis, TGA-DTA). Dolomite and calcite, as binders, and quartz, as aggregate, have been found as the main phases. The important variability of the studied samples has confirmed that the choice of the raw materials and their preparation were not taken carefully. Thermal behavior of the samples has shown the endothermic peaks related to calcite and dolomite decarbonations. No hydromagnesite phases have been detected. Finally, the approximate indications of the original composition of the raw materials mixtures are presented.

The Dymaxion House is a unique historic dwelling structure designed by Buckminster Fuller. Built in the 1940s, the house was constructed of modern materials, most notably aluminum, which formed the walls, roof and many of the structural elements. The challenge faced in reconstructing the Dymaxion House at Henry Ford Museum & Greenfield Village was to preserve the original structure as much as possible while simultaneously accommodating the needs of exhibition (i.e. to restore the visual appearance and ensure sufficient structural integrity to allow the entrance of visitors). The primary aluminum alloys used in the house are equivalent to the modern alloy designations 2014 and 2024; both extruded forms and Alclad sheets were used. The alloy composition, age-hardening characteristics, cladding layers, grain structure and corrosion products of the aged aluminum components of the Dymaxion House have been studied. The results of these studies were used in consultation with conservators, engineers and corrosion scientists to determine the most appropriate course of treatment.

Two Maya-period sites, Las Pacayas and Aguateca, have recently yielded fragments composed of a previously unknown material -- a laminate formed from multiple layers of woven cloth and clay slip. On-site and laboratory conservation efforts enabled the Aguateca finds to be identified as ceremonial headdress elements. Materials analysis and replication experimentation have elucidated technological aspects of this medium, and demonstrate its suitability for fabricating elaborate, lightweight items such as these.

A specialized workshop for the manufacture of flint sickle blades has recently been excavated at the site of Titris Hoyuk in southeastern Anatolia [1]. This paper will examine the sequence of production for the blades as well as the social context of this craft within the site. The workshop is the first example found containing evidence of the complete sequence of production for the ‘Canaanean blade,’ a type commonly used across the Near East in this period [2]. Since bronze was still new and relatively expensive, high-quality flint was used to manufacture sickle blades. Tabular flint was imported in the form of large slabs from several sources in the nearby hills. Specialists then prepared the blade cores, removed the blades, and then traded the final products to local farmers. A range of manufacturing debris has been found to illustrate the production sequence, including chunks of raw flint, core-shaping pieces, debitage pits, and stacks of exhausted and used cores. The large sample of over 1000 blade cores collected ensures a sizable data set for statistical analyses. Several types of raw flint were utilized for making the blades and production appears to vary slightly by these material types. The workshop is located within a household setting and is the only area within the excavated site containing debris from this craft. Spatial analyses of the types of flint used within the household workshop reveal its division into largely distinct areas for domestic versus specialist craft activities. The placement of the workshop in the suburbs far from the site's administrative center may indicate that its activities were independent of any elite. An estimate of the volume of blades produced combined with the location of the workshop at a major regional center suggest that it also supplied blades to other sites in the region.

The compositions of well-dated archaeological glasses from the Northern Adriatic have been determined to learn more about the origins of the Renaissance Venetian glassmaking industry. Electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) was used to characterize thirty-seven late antiquity (5th – 7th centuries) glass finds from Torcello, an island located five miles to the northwest of the Rialtine islands that make up modern Venice. The late antiquity glass data was used in conjunction with two groups of medieval glass data, a predominately 6th –10th centuries Torcello group analyzed by Brill and an 8th-14th centuries Venetian lagoon group analyzed by Verità to gain insight into the technological evolution of glassmaking in the lagoon. The three data sets were then examined within the context of archaeological evidence for a medieval glass furnace complex at Torcello. Our data on the late antiquity glasses reveals that a decline in Roman-style glassmaking technology during this period may have contributed to Venice's late medieval and Renaissance glassmaking innovations.

The merging of art production and technological innovation during the Renaissance in Europe led to some of the world's most renowned master works in bronze. Published technical studies of such bronzes are still relatively few in number. The objective of the present study was to conduct a comprehensive investigation of comparative examination and analysis on fifty-two bronze sculptures which were attributed to a wide variety of workshops and individual artists. The sculptures are housed in the permanent collection of the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, Austria, and were shown in the museum's 1987 exhibition, Renaissance Master Bronzes. Technical analysis included identifying and characterizing casting and fabricating techniques through visual surface examination; studying x-radiographs; and identifying clay core materials through thin-section petrography. The results of these studies were subsequently compared to technical treatises/accounts of bronze techniques by three Renaissance artist-scholars: Biringuccio (ca. 1540), Vasari (ca. 1550), and Cellini (ca. 1568). The present investigation shows a strong correlation between its technical results and those set forth by the above scholars from the Renaissance period. The findings of this research and comparison indicate that many methods and procedures in Renaissance bronze production were not standardized. Rather, there is shown to have been a wide range of technical variation. The broad variance is demonstrated through numerous processes, including: modes of separate cast-piece attachment, armature construction, chaplet insertion, selection of clay core and additive materials, and removal of clay core portions after casting. The variance is also evident in the quality and extent of surface tooling and/or chasing, and in the visual appearance of patinas. One result of this study is a better understanding of the nature of bronze sculpture technology during the Renaissance period.

The discovery of the RMS Titanic has led to a number of scientific studies, one of which addresses the role that the structural materials played in the sinking of the ship. Chemical, microstructural, and mechanical analysis of the hull steel suggests that it was state-of-the-art for 1912 with adequate fracture toughness for the application. However, the quality of the wrought iron rivets may have been an important factor in the opening of the steel plates during flooding. Preliminary studies of Titanic wrought iron rivets revealed an orthotropic, inhomogeneous composite material composed of glassy iron silicate (slag) particles embedded in a ferrite matrix. To date, very little is understood about the properties of wrought iron from that period. Therefore, in order to assess the quality of the Titanic material, contemporary wrought iron was obtained from additional late 19th/early 20th century buildings, bridges, and ships for comparison. Image analysis completed on the Titanic wrought iron microstructure showed a high slag content that is very coarse and unevenly distributed. To investigate how microstructure impacts the mechanical properties, and hence the quality of late 19th/early 20th century wrought iron, a detailed analysis of the relationship between the microstructural features and the mechanical behavior was completed. Here we present the first step in that process: the use of the Generalized Method of Cells (GMC) to predict the mechanical response of composites with variable microstructural properties. The GMC tool is used to generate the effective inelastic behavior of the composite from the individual constituent properties.

Portland Brownstone (PB) is a widely used building material, particularly in New York City, that is susceptible to severe deterioration from weathering. This stone contains clays that may cause damage by dilating during wetting/drying cycles. We have measured the swelling strain of PB in aqueous solutions to determine the effect of ionic strength (of KCl and CaCl2) and water activity (in isopropanol solutions). We have also measured the stress exerted during swelling when the expansion is constrained. These data permit calculation of the stresses produced during wetting/drying cycles, which are found to be comparable to the tensile strength of the stone.

The present work has as its objective a metallographic analysis of a metallic archaeological artifact using methods of optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The object of study is a scythe from the Brazilian colonial period, dated beginning of XVII century, removed from an archaeological site, Sítio Cruzeiro, in excavations conducted by researchers of the Brazilian Archaeological Institute. Sample preparation required a meticulous procedure in view of the fragility of the object. The scythe has been suffering the action of oxidation-corrosion for over 300 years, allowing the impregnation of mineral sediments. A detailed metallographic analysis coupled with spectroscopic SEM measurements concluded that of the object was made of steel with a carbon content of the order of 0.4%. The equi-axed microstructure together with the alignment of inclusions strongly suggest a metal working procedure followed by heat treatment and a slow cooling rate as the method used for fabricating the artifact.

Four iron statues dated by inscription to the Ming Dynasty, China, (1491 A.D.) were investigated for their metal composition and coating structures. The investigation was initiated with the intent of ascertaining whether any prior treatment had been done and to determine the present condition of the objects. During visual examination and simple surface cleaning, it became apparent that the objects had some form of surface decoration and polychrome. On closer examination, gilding, lacquer, and traces of pigment around the hat, eyes, and garments were visible. A sample of the metal was taken for metallography and chemical compositional analysis. Samples were taken from the surface of the four objects to identify the composition of the observed decoration and corrosion. The results revealed that the statues are white cast iron and were fully decorated with multiple colours and gilding as well as being sequentially lacquered. Recommendations for the cleaning and conservation of these and similar objects are given.