The phylogeny of Lecanoromycetes (Ascomycota, Fungi) is investigated utilizing parsimony and Bayesian Markov Chain Monte Carlo analyses, of combined nLSU rDNA and mtSSU rDNA sequence datasets. The results suggest that Acarosporaceae, Candelariaceae, Phlyctis and Pycnora are not members of the monophyletic Lecanorales, and that Timdalia and Pleopsidium are members of a monophyletic Acarosporaceae. Pycnora, Candelariaceae and Acarosporaceae form a monophyletic group. Umbilicariaceae, Hypocenomyce scalaris, H. friesii, Ophioparmaceae, Boreoplaca, Elixia and Fuscidea form either a basal paraphyletic assemblage in Lecanoromycetes, or a monophyletic group which is the sister-group to Lecanorales and the rest of Lecanoromycetes (excluding Acarosporaceae). The Acarosporaceae forms a group with Pycnora and Candelariaceae, which may be outside the Lecanoromycetes. Chaetothyriales, Verrucariales, Eurotiales, Lichinales and Mycocaliciales form a monophyletic group, but with low support. We briefly discuss incongruence between datasets from different genetic markers, comparing the differences between the separate parsimony analyses, where the ILD test indicated a very significant incongruence. The phylogenetic significance of ascus-types that have influenced most recent Ascomycota classifications heavily is also discussed, and we finally point out risks with formalizing classifications too early.

Previous phylogenetic studies based on ITS sequence data have shown that Ophiostoma species with Sporothrix anamorphs include several species complexes. Isolates from oak in Poland and Hungary, which have previously been referred to as O. stenoceras, as well as isolates morphologically similar to S. inflata formed the basis of this study. Identification was based on sequences for the ITS region of rDNA operon and partial β-tubulin gene. Analyses showed that isolates from Poland and Hungary reside in a well resolved clade, separate from those in the O. stenoceras-complex. The morphology of these isolates was compared with those of strains in the O. stenoceras complex and S. inflata. Morphological differences in teleomorph and anamorph structures were found between the isolates from Poland and Hungary and those in the O. stenoceras-complex. Growth characteristics and the presence of the teleomorph in culture could be used to separate this fungus from isolates in the S. inflata-complex. The fungus from Poland and Hungary is described here as O. dentifundum sp. nov. It is phylogenetically most closely related to isolates of S. inflata, which represent four well defined groups based on morphology and DNA sequence phylogeny.

Phytophthora megakarya is a devastating oomycete pathogen that causes black pod disease in cacao. Phytophthora species produce a protein that has a similar sequence to the necrosis and ethylene inducing protein (Nep1) of Fusarium oxysporum. Multiple copies of NEP1 orthologs (PmegNEP) have been identified in P. megakarya and four other Phytophthora species (P. citrophthora, P. capsici, P. palmivora, and P. sojae). Genome database searches confirmed the existence of multiple copies of NEP1 orthologs in P. sojae and P. ramorum. In this study, nine different PmegNEP orthologs from P. megakarya strain Mk-1 were identified and analyzed. Of these nine orthologs, six were expressed in mycelium and in P. megakarya zoospore-infected cacao leaf tissue. The remaining two clones are either regulated differently, or are nonfunctional genes. Sequence analysis revealed that six PmegNEP orthologs were organized in two clusters of three orthologs each in the P. megakarya genome. Evidence is presented for the instability in the P. megakarya genome resulting from duplications, inversions, and fused genes resulting in multiple NEP1 orthologs. Traits characteristic of the Phytophthora genome, such as the clustering of NEP1 orthologs, the lack of CATT and TATA boxes, the lack of introns, and the short distance between ORFs were also observed.

The entomopathogenic fungus Pandora neoaphidis is an important natural enemy of aphids. ISSR, ERIC (Enterobacterial Repetitive Intergenic Consensus) and RAPD PCR-based DNA fingerprint analyses were undertaken to study intra-specific variation amongst 30 isolates of P. neoaphidis worldwide, together with six closely related species of Entomophthorales. All methods yielded scorable binary characters, and distance matrices were constructed from both individual and combined data sets. Neighbour-joining was used to construct consensus phylogenetic trees which showed that although P. neoaphidis isolates were highly polymorphic they separated into a monophyletic group compared with the other Entomophthorales tested. Three distinct subclades were found, with UK isolates occupying two of these. No specific correlation with aphid host species was established for any of the isolates apart from those in one cluster which contained isolates obtained from nettle aphid, Microlophium carnosum. ERIC, ISSR and RAPD analysis allowed the rapid genetic characterisation and differentiation of isolates with the generation of potential isolate- and cluster specific- diagnostic DNA markers.

Botryosphaeria spp. from seeds of the native afromontane forest tree species, Podocarpus falcatus and Prunus africana, in Ethiopia have been identified. This is achieved by combining anamorph morphological characters and ITS sequence data. From a relatively small sample, four Botryosphaeria spp. were encountered. Two of the species from P. falcatus and the one from P. africana have not been previously described. The two species from P. falcatus were represented by only one isolate each and are not named here. The morphology of their Diplodia and Dothiorella anamorphs is, however, characterised. The anamorph of the other Botryosphaeria sp. from P. africana is described here as Diplodia rosulata sp. nov. Furthermore, B. parva is identified from P. falcatus based on ITS phylogeny. This species is also an important pathogen of various commercially important tree species in Ethiopia and elsewhere. This study highlights the ability of Botryosphaeria spp. to infect seeds and the possibility that they might be distributed in this way. The study also contributes to recent attempts to stabilize the taxonomy of Botryosphaeria anamorphs, especially regarding Diplodia, which is currently in taxonomic disarray.

Chytridiomycota were isolated into pure culture from cool temperate and warm semi-arid soils of eastern Australia. In pure culture these fungi responded variably to the range of temperatures commonly recorded in their environment. All members of the Blastocladiales, Spizellomycetales and Chytridiales grew in culture at temperatures up to 30 °C. Some isolates from the Blastocladiales and Spizellomycetales continued to grow at or above 37 °. Some isolates of the Chytridiales grew up to but not beyond 35 °. All isolates in the Chytridiales were able to resume growth at 20 ° after brief exposure to temperatures higher than the maximum growth temperature, but were killed by exposure to higher temperatures for 7 d. Because in the natural soil habitat temperature may exceed the maximum for growth it may be a limiting factor that determines the distribution of chytrids in the soil.

The effect of the flavonoids chrysin, isorhamnetin, kaempferol, luteolin, morin and rutin on pre-symbiotic growth, such as spore germination, hyphal length, hyphal branching and the formation of auxiliary cells and secondary spores, of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi Gigaspora rosea, G. margarita, Glomus mosseae and G. intraradices was studied. According to the effect on each fungal growth parameter, the tested compounds could be classified to be genus and/or species specific or specific, for a certain developmental stage of pre-symbiotic growth. A clear arbuscular mycorrhizal genus specific, and even species specific, effect of some flavonoids was observed. However, this specificity of a flavonoid could not be generalized but differs depending on the pre-symbiotic stage of the AM fungus. Moreover, our show that for a better understanding of the role of compounds in the AM symbiosis, studies should not be conducted only with one AM fungus looking at one fungal growth parameter such as spore germination or hyphal length, but should be wider, including several growth parameters and several AM fungi.

The genus Piricauda comprises eight species characterized by monotretic conidiogenous cells and micronematous arched conidiophores: P. cochinensis, P. cubensis, P. longispora, P. mexicana, P. paraguayensis, P. pseudarthriae, P. taiwanensis, and P. vulcanensis sp. nov. P. caribensis is transferred to Acrodictys. Species usually colonize dead petioles and rachides of palms in tropical and subtropical areas, but can also be found on branches and leaves of different trees. The species are illustrated and briefly described, and a key to them is provided.

This study investigates the potential of emissions from a zinc smelter to induce oxidative damage to DNA and lipids in Boletus edulis, the king bolete. Concentrations of cadmium, zinc, copper, and mercury were determined in 16 fruit bodies collected near the smelter (exposed group), as well as in 15 reference samples. Frequency of apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) sites in DNA (a pre-mutagenic DNA base modification) and concentration of lipid hydroperoxides were chosen as damage parameters. Concentrations of the four metals, as well as oxidative damage to DNA and lipids were significantly elevated in the exposed group (Mann–Whitney, P<0.001). Both damage parameters correlated positively with concentrations of cadmium, zinc or copper in fruiting bodies (Spearman's P<0.01). Frequency of AP sites correlated significantly with mercury in the fruit bodies (P<0.05), whereas the association between lipid hydroperoxides and mercury was insignificant. Frequency of AP sites correlated positively with concentration of lipid hydroperoxides (P<0.001). Negative trends for the associations between concentrations of metals and AP sites or lipid hydroperoxides in the reference group (significant only for mercury and lipid hydroperoxides; P<0.05) suggest that in B. edulis low concentrations of mercury, possibly also of other of the metals determined in the present study, may induce dose-response relationships of a hormetic (‘J-shaped’) nature.

We used ITS-RFLP and sequence analysis to determine the identities of the fungal endophytes of six terrestrial orchid species from southeastern Queensland, a region previously unexplored in this context. Pure cultures of orchid – colonising fungi were obtained and fungal identities were assessed by means of ITS-PCR, RFLP analysis, sequence comparison, and protocorm colonisation tests. ITS-PCR and RFLP analysis resulted in five main groupings. Sequencing and GenBank comparison of these five groups showed that the fungal endophytes isolated from the three Pterostylis species were probably Thanatephorus species. There was close sequence identity (90%) of the fungus isolated from Acianthus spp. to Epulorhiza repens, suggesting these may be the same fungal species. However, that only E. repens succeeded in colonising protocorms of Thelymitra pauciflora suggests these may be different species of Epulorhiza. Analysis of the ITS and LSU sequences of the fungus isolated from Caladenia carnea showed high identities with a sequence from a Sebacina vermifera originally isolated from Caladenia dilatata. These results show that there is specificity for fungal partners within the orchid genera Acianthus, Caladenia and Pterostylis.

Two dark-spored agaric species from Asia are placed in the genus Anamika (Agaricales or euagarics clade). This result is supported by ITS and nLSU-rDNA sequences with strong measures of branch support, in addition to several morphological and ecological similarities. An inclusive ITS study was performed using a mixed model Bayesian analysis that suggests the derived status of Anamika within Hebeloma, thereby rendering Hebeloma a paraphyletic genus. However, the monophyly of Hebeloma cannot be rejected outright given ITS and nLSU-rDNA data. Thus, we propose two new Asian species in Anamika: A. angustilamellata sp. nov. from dipterocarp and fagaceous forests of southwestern China and northern Thailand; and A. lactariolens comb. nov., a Japanese species originally described in the genus Alnicola. A complete description of A. angustilamellata, including illustrations, is provided.

A glasshouse investigation was conducted to study the effectiveness of 11 arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi on the medicinal plant Coleus forskohlii. Coleus plants raised in presence of most of the AM fungi in polythene bags showed an increase in plant growth (height, number of branches and biomass), P, and forskolin contents over those grown in the absence of soil inoculation with AM fungi. The extent of growth, P, and forskolin status varied with the AM fungi used. Based on the plant biomass, P uptake and forskolin content per plant, Glomus bagyarajii was found to be the best AM symbiont for inoculating C. forskohlii, the next being Scutellospora calospora.

110 isolates of Beauveria (104 B. bassiana, 5 Beauveria spp., 1 B. brongniartii) were obtained from Sunn Pests (Eurygaster and Aelia species), litter, and other insect samples at overwintering sites in seven countries in the Middle East and West Asia. DNA was extracted from these isolates, and four techniques were used to characterize and to investigate genetic diversity at the molecular level: ITS-RFLP, ITS sequencing, ISSR-PCR, and AFLP. The ITS-RFLP and ITS sequences did not detect significant genetic variation among the isolates. However, both ISSR-PCR and AFLP analyses gave indications of intraspecific groupings correlated with geographical origin and relative genetic diversity among some isolates, but no obvious association with Sunn Pest hosts. There was no obvious genotypic grouping of B. bassiana isolates from E. integriceps, perhaps suggesting the overwintering populations were infected by generalist native isolates rather than by host-specific ones that might be more suitable for biocontrol purposes.

The development of a PCR assay for the detection of the poplar pathogenic fungi Septoria musiva (teleomorph Mycosphaerella populorum), S. populicola (M. populicola) and S. populi (M. populi) is described. Three pairs of species-specific PCR primers were designed using interspecific polymorphisms in the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of nuclear ribosomal RNA gene (rDNA) repeats. The specificity of the three primer pairs was successfully tested on a collection of 40 S. musiva, 39 S. populicola and six S. populi isolates. Using stringent PCR conditions, no cross-reaction was observed with any of the isolates tested. The specificity of the PCR assay was further confirmed with DNA extracted from 12 additional Septoria species and 17 other fungal species obtained from stems or leaves of poplars. Specific amplification of the fragments for S. musiva and S. populicola was sensitive relatively to the technique used, detecting as low as 1 pg template DNA, and 10 pg of DNA of the target species in a background of 1 ng of DNA of the other species. Moreover, using DNA purified directly from disrupted conidia, it was possible to detect with a probability of 90%, using one unique PCR assay, the DNA equivalent of 166 conidia per μl of S. musiva and 156 conidia per μl of S. populicola. The procedures developed in this work can thus be applied for rapid and accurate detection and identification of Septoria species from poplars.

Basidiomycete mycelia are ubiquitous in forest soils where they fulfil a range of key ecological functions. Population studies, based largely on basidiome collections, indicate that mycelia of many ectomycorrhizal and saprotrophic basidiomycetes can spread vegetatively for considerable distances through soil, but the extent to which these become physically or physiologically fragmented is unclear. This review considers aspects of the distribution, dynamics and translocatory activities of individual basidiomycete mycelia in forest soil, highlighting current gaps in our understanding and possible ways to address these.

The phylogenetic position of Uncinula forestalis within the Erysiphales has been inferred from 5.8S, 18S, and 28S rDNA sequences. Although the appendages of the ascomata are Uncinula-like, i.e. unbranched with curved-coiled apices, U. forestalis is situated at the very base of the large Erysiphales cluster, far from the ‘Pseudoidium’ clade (Erysiphe, including Microsphaera and Uncinula) and separate from the recently introduced basal genus Parauncinula. U. forestalis differs morphologically from the species of Erysiphe sect. Uncinula in having terminal, fasciculate (as in Podosphaera tridactyla), septate ascoma appendages and a Euoidium-like anamorph (conidia catenate). In Parauncinula, the appendages are also terminal but not fasciculate, the ascospores are curved, and the anamorph is lacking. Uncinula forestalis is a basal, tree-inhabiting powdery mildew with some additional ancestral characteristics, including Uncinula-like appendages and 6–8-spored asci. The new genus Caespitotheca gen. nov. is described with C. forestalis comb. nov. (syn. Uncinula forestalis) as the type species. We calculated the timing of the divergence of U. forestalis and P. septata using a molecular clock of the Erysiphales (6.5×10−10 changes per site per year in domains D1 and D2 of 28S rDNA) and a 28S rDNA data set. The results suggest that the divergence of U. forestalis and P. septata from other Erysiphales occurred between 90 and 80 Myr ago; i.e. the divergence of the two ancestral species may have occurred in the late Cretaceous.

Partial translation elongation factor 1 alpha (TEF-1α) gene and intron sequences are reported from 148 isolates of 11 species of the anamorph genus Fusarium; F. avenaceum (syn. F. arthrosporioides), F. cerealis, F. culmorum, F. equiseti, F. flocciferum, F. graminearum, F. lunulosporum, F. sambucinum, F. torulosum, F. tricinctum and F. venenatum. The sequences were aligned with TEF-1α sequences retrieved from 35 isolates of F. kyushuense, F. langsethiae, F. poae and F. sporotrichioides in a previous study, and 39 isolates of F. cerealis, F. culmorum, F. graminearum and F. pseudograminearum retrieved from sequence databases. The 222 aligned sequences were subjected to phylogenetic analyses using maximum parsimony and Bayesian Markov Chain Monte Carlo maximum likelihood statistics. Support for internal branching topologies was examined by Bremer support, bootstrap and posterior probability analyses. The resulting trees were largely congruent. The taxon groups included in the sections Discolor, Gibbosum and Sporotrichiella sensu Wollenweber & Reinking (1935) all appeared to be polyphyletic. All species were monophyletic except F. flocciferum that was paraphyletic, and one isolate classified as F. cfr langsethiae on the basis of morphology that grouped with F. sporotrichioides. Mapping of toxin profiles, host preferences and geographic origin onto the DNA based phylogenetic tree structure indicated that in particular the toxin profiles corresponded with phylogeny, i.e. phylotoxigenic relationships were inferred. A major distinction was observed between the trichothecene and non-trichothecene producers, and the trichothecene producers were grouped into one clade of strictly type A trichothecene producers, one clade of strictly type B trichothecene producers and one clade with both type A and type B trichothecene producers. Furthermore, production of the type A trichothecenes T-2/HT-2 toxins are associated with a lineage comprising F. langsethiae and F. sporotrichioides. The ability to produce zearalenone was apparently gained parallel to the ability to produce trichothecenes, and later lost in a derived sublineage. The ability to produce enniatins is a shared feature of the entire study group, with the exception of the strict trichothecene type B producers and F. equiseti. The ability to produce moniliformin seems to be an ancestral feature of members of the genus Fusarium which seems to have been lost in the clades consisting of trichothecene/zearalenone producers. The aims of the present study were to determine the phylogenetic relationships between the different species of Fusarium commonly occurring on Norwegian cereals and some of their closest relatives, as well as to reveal underlying patterns such as the ability to produce certain mycotoxins, geographic distribution and host preferences. Implications for a better classification of Fusarium are discussed and highlighted.

Phylogenetic relationships of Paecilomyces sect. Isarioidea species were analysed using the β-tubulin gene and ITS rDNA. Maximum parsimony analyses showed that the section does not form a natural taxonomic group and is polyphyletic within the Hypocreales. However, a group was recognized, designated as the Isaria clade, to be monophyletic comprising of the following Paecilomyces species: P. amoeneroseus, P. cateniannulatus, P. cateniobliquus, P. cicadae, P. coleopterorus, P. farinosus, P. fumosoroseus, P. ghanensis, P. javanicus and P. tenuipes. Some of these species have teleomorphs in Cordyceps.

Ceratocystis polonica and C. laricicola are two morphologically similar species that occur on conifers and reside in the Ceratocystis coerulescens species complex. They, however, represent two ecologically distinct entities. C. polonica causes blue stain on Norway spruce (Picea abies) and other spruce species (Picea spp.) in Eurasia and is associated with the bark beetles Ips typographus, I. typographus japonicus, I. amitinus and I. duplicatus. In contrast, C. laricicola lives in a symbiotic relationship with the bark beetles Ips cembrae and I. subelongatus that infest various larch species (Larix spp.). The objective of this study was to consider the phylogenetic relationships of C. polonica and C. laricicola and more specifically to determine the identity of Japanese isolates from both spruce and larch, based on sequences derived from the ITS regions of the rRNA operon, the β-tubulin gene and the HMG box of the MAT-2 gene. Isolates were also compared based on morphology and cultural characteristics. Comparisons of anamorph and teleomorph structures confirmed that C. polonica and C. laricicola are indistinguishable based on morphology. Both species had an optimal growth temperature of 25 °C. However, at temperatures between 31–33 °, C. polonica isolates grew slowly or not at all, while C. laricicola isolates grew more actively at these temperatures. Thus, a growth test at 32 ° can differentiate these species. Phylograms generated using parsimony for the three gene regions were strongly congruent. These showed three distinct clades supported by high bootstrap values. Two of the clades clearly separate C. laricicola from Europe and C. polonica, supporting the view that they represent two discrete taxa. A third clade included isolates obtained from galleries of Ips subelongatus on Larix kaempferi in Japan. This fungus clearly represents a discrete taxon that is closely related to, but distinct from C. laricicola, which is described here as C. fujiensis sp. nov.