One indication that a disease is prevalent in the general population is when it appears in literary offerings, is depicted in paintings by the old masters, and when it is given a colloquial name that bears no resemblance to the causative organism. Dermatophyte or ringworm infections have achieved this notoriety with the ignominious epithets of ‘athlete's foot’ and ‘jock itch’ being applied to infection of various body parts. Although not life-threatening, superficial mycoses due to dermatophyte fungi have been amongst the most communicable diseases in the population since antiquity and have considerable social and health-economic implications.

During the latest part of the Quaternary period (approximately from 11,000 to 50,000 years ago), a variety of large animals went extinct across extensive areas of the planet (Martin & Klein, 1984; MacPhee, 1999). Although a widespread phenomenon, late Quaternary extinctions of the so-called ‘megafauna’ varied greatly in intensity and timing around the world. So, while Europe, Asia, and Africa experienced only limited losses toward the end of the Pleistocene, the Americas, Australia, Madagascar and many Oceanic islands suffered dramatic extinctions. In North America, more than two-thirds of the mammals weighing more than 44 kg disappeared about 11,000 years ago (Alroy, 2001). Nearly at the same time, in South America most of the species of medium to large mammals also vanished. Australia witnessed an even more catastrophic continent-wide die-off. Some 23 of the 24 genera of Australian land vertebrates with a body mass of 45 to 1000 kilograms had died out by around 46,000 years ago (Roberts et al., 2001). The casualties of this ‘marvellous fact’, as the English naturalist Alfred Russell Wallace called it over a century ago (Wallace, 1876), bear exotic names that evoke fantastic images. Among them were fearsome claw-footed kangaroos that weighed 300 kilograms and the giant marsupial equivalents of rhinoceros and leopard in Australia. Somewhat later in North America, sabre-toothed cats, giant bisons, mammoths, mastodons, and also less well known mammals like the short-faced bear and the giant beaver went extinct. The whopping half-ton elephant birds, the heaviest birds ever known, giant lemurs and other strange beasts disappeared from the island of Madagascar within the last millennium (Burney, 1999).

We report a two year survey of saprotrophic fungi colonising woodchip mulch at two contrasting sites in Surrey, a formal garden and a roadside planting scheme. Two alien species (Stroparia aurantiaca and Psilocybe cyanescens) occurred at both sites, along with other notable species including Psilocybe percevalii, Agrocybe putaminum and Collybia biformis. Very little fruiting occurred on areas mulched with bark chippings. In the formal garden there was virtually no repeat fruiting in successive years. At the roadside site most species fruited profusely in the first season after deposition, then decreased greatly in numbers in the second year. It is concluded that ornamental woodchips but not bark chippings, can support diverse fungal communities including unusual species although these assemblages are short-lived.

Although the honey fungus (Armillaria mellea) is notorious as a common soil-borne pathogen and no woody plant appears completely immune to attack, it is frequently supposed by gardeners and others that some non-woody plants are less susceptible. Few herbaceous plants are inspected for this pathogen, and this may have limited our understanding of its epidemiology.

In contrast to the cultivated mushroom (Agaricus bisporus (J. Lange) Imbach) which was first cultivated in the early 18th century in France, the famous Shii-take mushroom (Lentinula edodes (Berk.) Pegler) was cultivated in China centuries earlier, before being developed in Japan and extensively exported throughout the world. Other common names include the Oakwood mushroom, Japanese forest mushroom, Black mushroom, and Pasania. It is a mushroom long valued for both a unique flavour and as a medicinal tonic, for even in the Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644 CE) it was claimed to be a general stimulant, curing colds, increasing blood circulation and lowering blood pressure.

Sunflower oil poured onto compost in November induced massive growth of Mortierella species. Mortierella hyaline was isolated into culture at 4 or 18 °C on weak media but not at 23-25 °C or on 2% malt agar. It grew well on olive oil agar, with its hyphae aggregating inside oil drops. The nature of nutrients utilized in normal soils and composts by Mortierella is not known but lipid levels there would appear to be low. Many Mortierella species are able to convert diverse carbon sources into lipids and are thus known as oleaginous fungi. Their biotechnological applications are briefly discussed.

Name of fungus

Phaffia rhodozyma W. M. Miller et al.

Introduction: Features of interest

Carotenoids are a group of over 600 molecules which can be found in most life forms and fulfil diverse functions, ranging from their original evolutionary role as photosynthetic or light-quenching pigments to antioxidants, precursors of vitamin A, or pigments involved in the visual attraction of animals such as flower pollinators or mating partners (Johnson & Schroeder, 1995). They are also thought to reduce the incidence of cancer and degenerative diseases in man, probably due at least partly to their antioxidant role in protecting sensitive biological molecules from highly reactive oxygen species or free radicals (Bendich & Olson, 1989; Nishino et al., 1999). Carotenoids are synthesized de novo by many bacteria, all photosynthetic algae and higher plants, as well as some fungi, but not by animals which must therefore satisfy any carotenoid requirement they have from their diet. Thus, for instance in marine ecosystems, planktonic algae are thought to be the primary producers of carotenoids which then pass through the food chain, eventually accumulating in crustaceans and fish feeding on them (Johnson & Schroeder, 1995). This is true especially of astaxanthin, a natural derivative of the most abundant carotenoid, ß-carotene, which gives many marine crustaceans as well as salmonid fish their typical orange-red colouration (Johnson & An, 1991). Considerable quantities of astaxanthin must be added to the feed of farmed salmon in order to obtain a healthy crop of fish as well as satisfying the eye of the consumer (Meyers, 1994). Astaxanthin may even contribute to the taste of cooked salmon (Josephson et al., 1991).

Morels and truffles differ widely in their form and behaviour. The morels resemble mushrooms to the extent that they have a cap borne upon a central stem, whilst the truffles form solid, round balls, which grow underground. These are the edible ascomycetes. Both morels and truffles represent some of the most highly prized edible mushrooms in the world.

The morels are sometimes referred to as the ‘truffles of the north’, but other popular names include ‘sponge’, ‘pine cone’, ‘corncob’, and ‘honeycomb mushroom’. They are the most popular of the springtime, edible fungi, usually occurring from late March through to mid-June, although each crop will survive only for a several days. Morels have a delicate flavour that can be overwhelmed during cooking, but delicious when eaten alone. They are normally prepared by frying in butter and can be preserved, with drying being the most popular method.

Zymography is an electrophoretic technique by which enzyme activity can be visualized directly on a polyacrylamide gel as discrete bands. A modified, more rapid technique for amylase zymography is described and compared with previously published methods. Whereas previous methods are based on 0.1 M acetate buffer as substrate buffer, our method utilizes 50mM Tris buffer containing Ca2+, Na+, NaN3 and Triton X-100 which helps rapid hydrolysis of the starch and stabilization of the enzyme. The staining procedure, previously requiring overnight incubation of the gel in iodine solution at 4 °C, has been reduced to 5 min at room temperature. Both methods gave rise to comparable levels of enzyme activity on polyacrylamide gels. Our modified method requires 8 h to complete the whole zymographical procedure instead of 18-20 h as in previous methods.

Ainsworth & Bisby's Dictionary of the Fungi (9th edition) edited by P. M. Kirk, P. F. Cannon , J. C. David and J. A. Stalpers (2001) Pp. 655. ISBN 0-85199-377-X (Hard cover). CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. Price £49.95; US$90.

The Dictionary of the Fungi is surely one of the most indispensable of all mycological publications – every student of the fungi should own, or have access to, a copy of the most recent edition. This 9th edition is a worthy scion of the line, and contains a wealth of up-to-date information, much of which can otherwise be found only if one has access to a huge spectrum of publications. Its compilation must have been a daunting task, even for four editors, and even given the background material provided by the previous edition. It is a work of considerable scholarship, and its editors have done a great service to mycology, despite some accusations of incompleteness that can be levelled against it. The first thing that a reviewer must admit is that one cannot possibly keep abreast of all the advances being made in mycological knowledge. This review is, therefore, bound to reflect personal interests (relatively broad as these may be) and prejudices (narrow as they may be). Clearly, it would be impossible to work one's way conscientiously from A to Z in any reasonable time frame. The alternative, which has been adopted, is to do a large number of quick scans and spot checks. My criticisms and recommendations are bound to be different from anyone else's. I hope, however, that they will provide useful indications of the strengths and weaknesses of the book.

Grass silage is a key source of forage for over-wintering livestock in Ireland. In the early 1990s Schizophyllum commune emerged as a contaminant of big-bale silage. A fungus rarely observed in Irish woodlands, S. commune is now commonly found on baled silage throughout Ireland and is also recorded on silage in Britain. Characteristics of the fungus on bales are described and potential consequences of its occurrence on silage are discussed.

The worldwide decline in frogs has been linked to a deadly disease (Chytridiomycosis) caused by the chytrid fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. We used Congo red to study chytrid fungi in skin scrapings taken from formalin preserved animals, from non-preserved decaying or dead animals, as well as from apparently healthy animals. We were able to distinguish immature and mature zoosporangia, zoospores and germling stages of the fungus within the host tissue. Staining patterns varied. Zoospores (including flagellum) stained orange but the walls of all other stages stained a reddish-orange. The inoperculate discharge tube was always intensely stained. However, when zoosporangia were within intact epidermal cells, only the exposed discharge tube stained unless the keratinized layer was breached. The epidermal cells either did not stain or stained pale orange. Congo red is cheap, easy to use and relatively non-hazardous, making it a valuable tool to study the spread and role of chytridiomycosis in frog decline.

The art, mythology, and controversial science surrounding Ganoderma lucidum (Ling Chih) in China are described.

Name of fungus

Teleomorph: Rhytisma acerinum (Pers.) Fr. (order Rhytismatales, family Rhytismataceae)

Anamorph: Melasmia acerina Lév.

Introduction: Features of interest

Tar-spot disease on leaves of sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) is one of the most easily recognised foliar plant diseases caused by a fungus (Figs 1 and 4). First described by Elias Fries in 1823, knowledge of it had become well-established by the latter half of the 19th century (e.g. Berkeley, 1860; Massee, 1915). The causal fungus, Rhytisma acerinum, occurs in Europe and North America on A. pseudoplatanus throughout its distribution range and also on other species of Acer (Sutton, 1980; Farr et al., 1989), but it is less frequent in urban and industrial areas.

The black tar-spots visible in late summer and autumn are stromata containing many apothecial rudiments, but these only mature to form asci during the winter on fallen leaves (Jones, 1925; Duravetz & Morgan-Jones, 1971). Maturing apothecial stromata develop linear or convoluted ridge-like swellings which raise the thick black layer (clypeus) on the upper surface of the stroma (Fig 1). Eventually, the surface breaks along the ridges (Fig 2), exposing a greyish hymenium (Fig 3) which contains club-shaped asci and filamentous paraphyses with curved or recoiled tips (Figs 8 and 9). The ascospores are unicellular and needle-shaped, with an apical mucilage pad (Fig 10). In Britain and Europe, ascospore discharge from overwintered stromata takes place in March and April, just as the new sycamore leaves unfold.

The occurrence of the American Horse Chestnut mildew, Uncinula flexuosa, is reported from Europe, including Great Britain, for the first time (New British Record 210). A key is provided for the identification of powdery mildews on horse chestnuts in Europe.

Two species of nematode endoparasites, Acrostalagmus bactrosporus Drechsler and Acrostalagmus obovatus Drechsler, which infect by spore adhesion, are transferred into the recently erected genus, Haptocillium Zare and Gams. We report on these species for the first time since their initial description over 60 years ago. Cultivation of both these fungi on corn meal agar revealed the production of alternative spore types not seen in association with the nematode host.

The 'Ling-zhi' (formerly 'Ling-chih') is familar to the whole of China, and it has played an important role in Chinese and Japanese culture for at least two thousand years. Images of the mushroom can be seen frequently depicted in the ancient, oriental art. It is used medicinally, with many claims of health-stimulating properties, and believed to have an effect on long life. Ling-zhi means the 'Mushroom (or herb) of Immortality' or the 'Celestial Herb', and it symbolises happiness, good fortune, good health and even immortality. In Japan it is called 'Mannen-take' ('10,000 year old Mushroom') or 'Reishi' ('Divine Mushroom'). The fungus is a hard bracket-fungus, which grows on oak, maple, elms and willows, often from the tree-roots. It is long been identified with the European 'Varnished Polypore' (Ganoderma lucidum (W. Curtis: Fr.) P. Karst.) but it is now known that this name has been applied to a number of closely related species.

Fomitopsis officinalis (Vill.: Fr.) Bondartsev & Singer (Laricifomes officinalis) has a holarctic distribution in three large areas: West-Europe, North America, Ural-Siberia, and some small populations in Morocco (Maire, 1914; Malençon, 1955), China (Dai, 2000), Japan and Korea (Gilbertson & Ryvarden, 1986). Undoubtedly, the European as well as the West-Siberian populations are relicts, like their host populations, especially Larix spp. Branke (1896) suggested that the relict localities of F. officinalis on Larix deciduas Mill. in Poland can be recognized as evidence of continuous larch forest occupying large parts of the Europe during cold post-glacial periods. At present, the species is most common in Siberia from the foothills of the Ural Mountains to the shores of the Pacific Ocean (Murashkinskij, 1939; Bondartsev, 1953; Lyubarskij & Vassiljeva, 1975; Mikhaleva, 1993; Mukhin, 1993). It is rare also in North America (Overholts, 1953; Gilbertson, 1980).

In a preliminary study of stable and declining beds of Spartina anglica five sporulating ascomycetes were identified. A comparison between stable and declining Spartina beds demonstrated that there was no overall difference in the fungal species found, and no significant difference between the numbers of isolates from the different beds except that Lulworthia sp. was more prominent in the stable beds. The vertical distribution of species of ascomycetes within Spartina anglica plants, from root to leaf-tip, is related to the status of the fungus as either an obligate or facultative marine fungus. The significance of these findings is discussed.