Visual displays of data in the parasitology literature are often presented in a way which is not very informative regarding the distribution of the data. An example being simple barcharts with half an error bar on top to display the distribution of parasitaemia and biomarkers of host immunity. Such displays obfuscate the shape of the data distribution through displaying too few statistical measures to explain the spread of all the data and selecting statistical measures which are influenced by skewness and outliers. We describe more informative, yet simple, visual representations of the data distribution commonly used in statistics and provide guidance with regards to the display of estimates of population parameters (e.g. population mean) and measures of precision (e.g. 95% confidence interval) for statistical inference. In this article we focus on visual displays for numerical data and demonstrate such displays using an example dataset consisting of total IgG titres in response to three Plasmodium blood antigens measured in pregnant women and parasitaemia measurements from the same study. This tutorial aims to highlight the importance of displaying the data distribution appropriately and the role such displays have in selecting statistics to summarize its distribution and perform statistical inference.

The Chinese black honey bee is a distinct honey bee subspecies distributed in the Xinjiang, Heilongjiang and Jilin Provinces of China. We conducted a study to investigate the genetic origin and the parasite/pathogen profile on Chinese black honeybees. The phylogenetic analysis indicated that Chinese black honeybees were two distinct groups: one group of bees formed a distinct clade that was most similar to Apis mellifera mellifera and the other group was a hybrid of the subspecies, Apis mellifera carnica, Apis mellifera anatolica and Apis mellifera caucasica. This suggests that the beekeeping practices might have promoted gene flow between different subspecies. Screening for pathogens and parasites showed that Varroa destructor and viruses were detected at low prevalence in Chinese black honeybees, compared with Italian bees. Further, a population of pure breeding black honeybees, A. m. mellifera, displayed a high degree of resistance to Varroa. No Varroa mites or Deformed wing virus could be detected in any examined bee colonies. This finding suggests that a population of pure breeding Chinese black honeybees possess some natural resistance to Varroa and indicated the need or importance for the conservation of the black honeybees in China.

FhCaBP2 is a Fasciola hepatica protein which belongs to a family of helminth calcium-binding proteins which combine an N-terminal domain containing two EF-hand motifs and a C-terminal dynein light chain-like (DLC-like) domain. Its predicted structure showed two globular domains joined by a flexible linker. Recombinant FhCaBP2 interacted reversibly with calcium and manganese ions, but not with magnesium, barium, strontium, copper (II), colbalt (II), iron (II), nickel, lead or potassium ions. Cadmium (II) ions appeared to bind non-site-specifically and destabilize the protein. Interaction with either calcium or magnesium ions results in a conformational change in which the protein's surface becomes more hydrophobic. The EF-hand domain alone was able to interact with calcium and manganese ions; the DLC-like domain was not. Alteration of a residue (Asp-58 to Ala) in the second EF-hand motif in this domain abolished ion-binding activity. This suggests that the second EF-hand is the one responsible for ion-binding. FhCaBP2 homodimerizes and the extent of dimerization was not affected by calcium ions or by the aspartate to alanine substitution in the second EF-hand. The isolated EF-hand and DLC-like domains are both capable of homodimerization. FhCaBP2 interacted with the calmodulin antagonists trifluoperazine, chlorpromazine, thiamylal and W7. Interestingly, while chlorpromazine and thiamylal interacted with the EF-hand domain (as expected), trifluoperazine and W7 bound to the DLC-like domain. Overall, FhCaBP2 has distinct biochemical properties compared with other members of this protein family from Fasciola hepatica, a fact which supports the hypothesis that these proteins have different physiological roles.

Heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) is a key component of the molecular chaperone complex essential for activating many signalling proteins involved in the development and progression of pathogenic cellular transformation. A Hsp90 gene (BQHsp90) was cloned and characterized from Babesia sp. BQ1 (Lintan), an ovine Babesia isolate belonging to Babesia motasi-like group, by screening a cDNA expression library and performing rapid amplification of cDNA ends. The full-length cDNA of BQHsp90 is 2399 bp with an open reading frame of 2154 bp encoding a predicted 83 kDa polypeptide with 717 amino acid residues. It shows significant homology and similar structural characteristics to Hsp90 of other apicomplex organisms. Phylogenetic analysis, based on the HSP90 amino acid sequences, showed that the Babesia genus is clearly separated from other apicomplexa genera. Five Chinese ovine Babesia isolates were divided into 2 phylogenetic clusters, namely Babesia sp. Xinjiang (previously designated a new species) cluster and B. motasi-like cluster which could be further divided into 2 subclusters (Babesia sp. BQ1 (Lintan)/Babesia sp. Tianzhu and Babesia sp. BQ1 (Ningxian)/Babesia sp. Hebei). Finally, the antigenicity of rBQHSP90 protein from prokaryotic expression was also evaluated using western blot and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

Dientamoeba fragilis is an inhabitant of human gastrointestinal tract with a worldwide distribution. The first description considered this protozoan a rare and harmless commensal, since then it has struggled to gain recognition as a pathogen. Commercial multiplex real-time PCR was used to detect D. fragilis in fecal samples from hospitalized children (⩽18 years) with acute gastrointestinal disease, admitted to two hospitals of Lisbon area, with different demographic characteristics. A total of 176 children were studied, 103 (58·5%) male, 144 (81·8%) children between 0 and 5 years and 32 (18·2%) above 6 years old. The overall protozoa frequency considering the four tested microorganisms were 8·5% (15/176), and the most frequently found protozoan was D. fragilis, 6·3% (11/176). Dientamoeba fragilis frequency was higher among older children (21·9%), than younger children (2·8%), and greater in boys (6·8%) than in girls (5·5%). All positive children presented with diarrhoea associated with vomiting, fever and abdominal pain. Infection was associated with the age of children (P < 0·001), school attendance (P = 0·002) and consumption of certain foods (P = 0·014), e.g. cakes with crème and ham. The frequency of diantamoebiasis found in a cohort of hospitalized Portuguese children, with acute gastrointestinal disease, could be considered a very high value when compared with the protozoan frequency normally associated with this pathology.

Immunophilins comprise two protein families, cyclophilins (CYPs) and FK506-binding proteins (FKBPs), and are the major receptors for the immunosuppressive drugs cyclosporin A (CsA) and FK506 (tacrolimus), respectively. Most eukaryotic species have at least one immunophilin and some of them have been associated with pathogenesis of infectious or parasitic diseases or the action of antiparasitic drugs. The human malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum has 13 immunophilin or immunophilin-like genes but the functions of their products are unknown. We set out to identify the parasite proteins that interact with the major CYPs, PfCYP19A and PfCYP19B, and the FKBP, PfFKBP35, using a combination of co-immunoprecipitation and yeast two-hybrid screening. We identified a cohort of putative interacting partners and further investigation of some of these revealed potentially novel roles in parasite biology. We demonstrated that (i) P. falciparum CYPs interacted with the heat shock protein 70, (ii) treatment of parasites with CYP ligands disrupted transport of the rhoptry-associated protein 1, and (iii) PfFKBP35 interacted with parasite histones in a way that might modulate gene expression. These findings begin to elucidate the functions of immunophilins in malaria. Furthermore, the known antimalarial effects of CsA, FK506 and non-immunosuppressive derivatives of these immunophilin ligands could be mediated through these partner proteins.

In wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) on an estate in Perthshire, central Scotland, the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii was 18/548 (3·3%). The wild rabbit could be a T. gondii reservoir and it has potential value as a sentinel of T. gondii in environmental substrates. Toxoplasma gondii was associated with female sex (P < 0·001) and with relatively heavy infections by Eimeria stiedae (P = 0·036). It was not associated with the intensity of coccidial oocysts, the severity of myxomatosis caused by the virus Myxomatosis cuniculi, the intensity of roundworm eggs, the year or season, rabbit age or distance from farm buildings. Coinfections could have been affected by gestational down regulation of type 1 T helper cells. A sudden influx or release of T. gondii oocysts might have occurred. This is the first report of T. gondii in any wild herbivore in Scotland and also the first report of lapine T. gondii as a coinfection with E. stiedae, M. cuniculi and helminths.

Mitochondrial DNA locus cytochrome oxidase I was used to asses intraspecific genetic diversity of a didymozoid species Didymosulcus katsuwonicola. Adult forms of this species live encapsulated in pairs in the gills of the reared Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus). The life cycle of this food-borne parasites and its migration in the host tissues after releasing from the digestive tract to the definitive site in the gills are unknown. Our goal was to assess whether two encysted didymozoids share the same haplotype, indicative of a common maternal origin, as well as the extent of cross- in respect to self-fertilization strategy. Intraspecific comparison showed high haplotype diversity, while the presence of two matching haplotypes within a single cyst encompassed only 17% of sampled individuals. This infers that cross-fertilization between paired individuals within the cyst is more common mechanism than self-fertilization. Such hermaphroditic parasite's trait suggests the existence of intricate infection and reproduction mechanisms, presumably as an adaptation for successful fulfillment of their indirect life cycle through dissemination of genetically more diverse and consequently more fit offspring.

The epidemiology of trematode infections in cattle was investigated within highland and lowland areas of Iringa Rural District, in southern Tanzania. Fecal samples were collected from 450 cattle in 15 villages at altitudes ranging from 696 to 1800 m above the sea level. Freshwater snails were collected from selected water bodies and screened for emergence of cercariae. The infection rates in cattle were Fasciola gigantica 28·2%, paramphistomes 62·8% and Schistosoma bovis 4·8%. Notably, prevalence of trematode infections in cattle was much higher in highland (altitude > 1500 m) as compared with lowland (altitude < 1500 m) areas and was statistically significant (P-value = 0·000) for F. gigantica and paramphistomes but not for S. bovis. The snails collected included Lymnaea natalensis, Bulinus africanus, Bulinus tropicus, Bulinus forskali, Biomphalaria pfeifferi, Melanoides tuberculata and Bellamya constricta with a greater proportion of highland (75%) than lowland (36%) water bodies harbouring snails. Altitude is a major factor shaping the epidemiology of F. gigantica and paramphistomes infections in cattle in Iringa Rural District with greater emphasis upon control needed in highland areas.

The pathogenicity of Trichomonas species is well documented. Although their exact involvement in gum disease is not fully understood, recent studies suggest a correlation between these protozoa and periodontitis. This case report details the first chair-side observation in Europe of an oral trichomonad infection in a child with periodontitis, by direct microscopy. The dramatic recovery of the patient, observed following administration of an anti-parasitic treatment, confirms the necessity of further investigation in this field.

Trypanosomes are blood-borne parasites that can cause severe disease in both humans and animals, yet little is known of the pathogenicity and life-cycles of trypanosomes in native Australian mammals. Trypanosoma copemani is known to be infective to a variety of Australian marsupials and has recently been shown to be potentially zoonotic as it is resistant to normal human serum. In the present study, in vivo and in vitro examination of blood and cultures from Australian marsupials was conducted using light microscopy, immunofluorescence, scanning electron microscopy and fluorescence in situ hybridization. Promastigote, sphaeromastigote and amastigote life-cycle stages were detected in vivo and in vitro. Novel trypanosome-like stages were also detected both in vivo and in vitro representing an oval stage, an extremely thin stage, an adherent stage and a tiny round stage. The tiny round and adherent stages appeared to adhere to erythrocytes causing potential haematological damage with clinical effects similar to haemolytic anaemia. The present study shows for the first time that trypomastigotes are not the only life-cycle stages circulating within the blood stream of trypanosome infected Australian native marsupials and provides insights into possible pathogenic mechanisms of this potentially zoonotic trypanosome species.