This paper reports a longitudinal study, conducted in 1989/90, of 1893 children aged 5 to 14 years in 9 poor urban areas of the city of Salvador (population 2·44 million), capital of Bahia State in northeast Brazil. Stool examinations were performed to measure nematode infection and reinfection 9 months after treatment, and an extensive questionnaire was applied to collect information on each child and on the conditions of the household. Comparison of areas with different levels of infrastructure showed the following trends as the level of community sanitation improved: clustering of cases by household became more significant, predisposition of individuals to reinfection and to heavy infection became more marked, and infections with different species were increasingly aggregated in the same individuals. These results suggest that sewerage and drainage can significantly reduce transmission of intestinal nematode infections in the public domain, but that other measures are required to control transmission within the household.

Patients with chronic Chagas' Heart Disease (cChHD) develop an antibody response that is suspected to be involved in the cardiac pathogenesis. The response against Trypanosoma cruzi ribosomal P proteins is of particular interest, as these antibodies can cross-react with host cardiac receptors causing electrophysiological alterations. To better understand the humoral anti-P response we constructed a single-chain variable fragment library derived from a cChHD patient. The variable heavy and light regions were amplified from bone-marrow RNA and subcloned into the vector pComb3X. The phage library was subsequently panned against T. cruzi ribosomal P2β protein (TcP2β). We obtained 3 different human recombinant antibodies that specifically reacted with TcP2β in ELISA and Western blots. Two of them reacted with the C-terminal region of TcP2β, peptide R13, as the recombinant autoanti-P antibodies from Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) patients. Interestingly, the third one was specific for TcP2β but did not recognize R13, confirming the specific nature of the anti-P response in Chagas disease. Neither sequence nor VH usage similarities between Chagas and SLE anti-P autoantibodies were observed. Herein, the first human mAbs against TcP2β have been obtained and characterized showing that the humoral anti-P response is directed against the parasite and does not include an autoimmune component.

In recent years, through a national programme for schistosomiasis control, this infection has been eliminated from Iran. The aim of this study was to report the process of significant decrease of urogenital schistosomiasis in southwestern Iran. During national programme surveillance for urogenital schistosomiasis control which was implemented by Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) of Khuzestan province from 1975 to 2013, more than 1·3 million urine samples were taken from inhabitants of high risk foci. All urine samples were gathered between 10:00 a.m and 02:00 p.m and, after centrifuging, specimens were tested under optical microscope in order to detect Schistosoma haematobium eggs. Data analysis was performed using SPSS 18 software. In this retrospective study significant reduction was seen in number of infections between 1975 and 2013. During the years 1975–1980, 1981–1990 and 1991–2000 there were 1582, 761 and 79 cases of S. haematobium, respectively. In 2001 only one case was reported from Ahvaz and indeed this was the last case of urogenital schistosomiasis in Khuzestan and of course, in Iran. Prevalence from 1·064% between 1975 and 1980 slumped to 0% in 2012–2013. During several projects for surveillance of urogenital schistosomiasis, selective population chemotherapy, snail control, population education, environmental improvement, etc were carried out throughout the surveillance period. According to elimination of S. haematobium in Khuzestan province, the only endemic region of Iran, control of disease, especially the campaign with intermediate host snails should be continued. Iran can be a successful model for countries suffering from this disease.

In the present study, we assessed morphological changes and cytokine production after in vitro interaction with causative agents of American cutaneous leishmaniasis and compared the microglia and macrophage immune responses. Cultures of microglia and macrophages infected with stationary-phase promastigotes of Leishmania (Viannia) shawi, Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis or Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis were evaluated 24, 48 and 72 h after interaction. Macrophages only presented the classical phagocytic process while microglia also displayed large cytoplasmic projections similar to the ruffles described in macropinocytosis. In the macrophage cultures, the percentage of infected cells increased over time, in a fashion that was dependent on the parasite species. In contrast, in microglial cells as the culture time progressed, there was a significant reduction in the percentage of infected cells independent of parasite species. Measurements of cytokines in macrophage cultures 48 h after interactions revealed distinct expression patterns for different parasites, whereas in microglial cultures they were similar for all Leishmania tested species. Taken together, our results suggest that microglia may have a higher phagocytic ability and cytotoxic potential than macrophages for all investigated species. The robust response of microglia against all parasite species may suggest microglia have an important role in the defence against cerebral leishmaniasis.

Thirty-five lambs (14 weeks old), the progeny of Border Leicester rams mated with Border Leicester × Merino ewes were divided at random into two groups. Seventeen lambs received 3500 Haemonchus contortus larvae at weekly intervals (weekly group) and 18 lambs received 500 larvae each day (daily group). The dosage was decreased to 1400 and 200 larvae respectively after 8 weeks.

The daily infection with a small number of larvae induced a severe anaemic condition with the blood picture falling to 7% PCV; 2% Hb conc. and 1·6m/mm3 RBC count in 78 days. The anaemia with weekly dosing of larvae was less severe with equivalent figures of 10–12% PCV; 4% Hb conc and 3·6m/mm3 RBC count.

Two phases were observed in the changes in the sodium (Na+e) and potassium (K+e) electrolyte concentrations. In the first phase (K+e) increased and (Na+e) decreased, while in the second phase both electrolytes increased. The influx of young red blood cells into the circulation is considered as the factor responsible for these changes.

In this paper short descriptions are given of three new species (two Cestodes and a Nematode) contained in a collection kindly entrusted to the writer by Prof. G. H. F. Nuttall, F.R.S., for determination. The material was collected in Queensland by Mr F. H. S. Roberts, and forwarded to Prof. Nuttall by Mr Robert Veitch, Chief Entomologist, Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane.

A cDNA clone encoding a full length putative collagen has been isolated in a screen of a mixed stage Globodera pallida expression library. Comparison of the deduced amino acid sequence of this molecule with other collagens suggests it is a cuticular collagen and a member of the col-8 subfamily of collagen genes. Northern blots show the gene is expressed specifically in gravid, adult females of the parasite as compared to second (invasive) stage juveniles and virgin females. Preliminary immunocytochemical studies indicate this collagen is present in areas other than the cuticle; these findings and the potential functional role of this collagen are discussed.

The effect of an amino acid imbalance in the diet on the growth of Hymenolepis diminuta in rats was reinvestigated. The claims of earlier workers that growth of the tapeworm is retarded was not substantiated.

The size frequency distribution of 575, 13-day-old H. diminuta recovered from 9- and 10-worm infections was determined, to reveal the shape of the distribution and total variance. The total variance in worm weights was analysed to determine the amount attributable to variance ‘between rats’ (comparison of the mean weight of the worms recovered from rats) and variance between worms within individual rats. ‘Between rats’ variance was found to account for > 80% of the total variance.

Assuming variance equal to that in the experiments described, the degree to which experiments can determine a difference in effect between two diets on the growth of tapeworms is analysed, and the degree to which this is altered by increasing the number of rats in dietary groups and/or decreasing the ‘between rats’ variance is estimated.

The suitability of various procedures for host dietary experiments on tapeworms is discussed; these include the duration of the experiment, feeding regime, age of worm and the relative advantages of weighing worms singly or in groups.

We gratefully acknowledge the technical help we have received from Miss Patricia Grant and Mr Jack Keys. Our thanks are also due to Mr Robert Elton of the University of Glasgow Statistics Department who has advised us on statistical procedures and calculated Table 6.

When infected with equal numbers of eggs of Amplicaecum robertsi normal male mice harboured more larvae than normal females. Treatment of the mice with thiouracil and thyroxine eliminated the differences between the sizes of the worm populations shown between the sexes in normal mice.

Thiouracil treatment increased the susceptibility of mice to A. robertsi infection, but caused a stunting of the larvae. Thyroxine treatment had no effect on the host–parasite relationship.

It is suggested that the differential ability of the larvae to hatch, penetrate the tissues of the host and migrate to the liver in thiouracil- and thyroxine-treated mice was responsible for the differences in the sizes of the larval populations observed.

This investigation was carried out during the tenure of a Senior Research Fellowship from the Wool Research Board of Australia. I should like to thank Professor J. F. A. Sprent for his continued interest and Mr C. Wilkinson for his careful assistance.

1. The character of the scolex, the long filamentous neck and the morphology of the proglottids are features which justify the establishment of a new genus, Penetrocephalus, to accommodate the pseudophyllid species P. ganapatii (= Both-riocephalus ganapatii (Rao, 1954), B. penetratus (Subhapradha, 1955)) from the marine teleost Saurida tumbil Bloch, off Waltair, Bay of Bengal.

2. The anatomy of the female reproductive system is described in detail, and a preliminary interpretation of the histochemistry of egg-shell formation is given.

3. On the basis of histochemical tests it is suggested that Mehlis's gland, which surrounds the cellular ootype, secretes a phospholipid-like material which may aid in the release of shell precursors from the vitelline cells, but it does not form part of the shell. It appears also to be responsible for the synthesis of PAS-positive yolky matter found in these cells in the egg capsule. The functions of Mehlis's gland in helminths are discussed.

4. In a majority of helminths where the egg-shell is a quinone-tanned protein, it is considered that it is solely if not entirely derived from shell globules in the vitelline cells.

Few workers have studied the amino acid requirement of larval Digenea in vivo. Cheng (1963) conducted a study of three species of parasites, each from a different host, and suggested that both free and bound host amino acids act as food sources. His assumptions are based on the disappearance of free amino acids from the sera of infected molluscs and the qualitative similarities between parasite and host with respect to both free and bound amino acids. Negus (1968), working on Turritella communis infected with the sporocysts of Cercaria doricha, described an almost identical qualitative composition of both the free amino acid pools and the hydrolysates of host gonad and parasite tissue. He was of the opinion that this was not coincidental. Considerable quantitative similarities between the free amino acids were also evident. Read, Rothman & Simmons (1963), in discussing cestode metabolism and membrane transport, proposed that it is the molar ratios of amino acids in the host which are important to the parasite and that the amino acid requirement may be more subtle than a simple need for certain components. Indeed, they suggest that this may form one basis for physiological host specificity.

The effect of trypanosome infection on vector survival was observed in a line of Glossina morsitans morsitans selected for susceptibility to trypanosome infection. The differential effects of midgut and salivary gland infections on survival were examined by exposing flies to infection with either Trypanosoma congolense which colonizes midgut and mouthparts or Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense which colonizes midgut and salivary glands. A comparison of the survival distributions of uninfected flies with those exposed to infection showed that salivary gland infection significantly reduces tsetse survival; midgut infection had little or no effect on the survival of tsetse. The significance of these findings is discussed in relation to the vectorial capacity of wild flies.

Two new species of coccidia, Eimeria gourai sp. nov. from the Victoria crowned pigeon (Goura victoria Fraser) and Eimeria duculai sp.nov. from the Torres Strait imperial pigeon (Ducula spilorrhoa Gray) have been described. Eimeria gourai oocysts are spherical to sub-spherical in shape, measure 20·0 (19·0–22·0) × 20·0 (18·0–21·0) μm and are devoid of micropyle and oocyst residuum. Elongate sporocysts are 12·0 × 5·5 μm, and contain a granular residuum. Eimeria duculai oocysts are broadly ovoid with an inconspicuous micropyle at the narrower end. They are 28·0 (26·0–31·0) × 25·0 (23·0–27·0) μm in size, without residuum but with a membrane-bound polar granule. The elongate sporocysts are 15·5 × 7·2 μm, with prominent Stieda body and granular, membrane-bound residuum. The morphological characteristics of the known coccidian oocysts from birds of the avian order Columbiformes are reviewed.

Lice are obligate parasites of mammals and birds and have become an important model for studies of host-parasite co-evolution and co-phylogenetics. Population genetic and phylogeographic studies represent an important bridge between microevolution and co-phylogenetic patterns. We examine co-phylogeographic patterns in sika deer and their parasitic lice. Co-phylogeographic patterns in deer and lice were evaluated using homologous regions of mitochondrial COI sequences. The phylogeographic breaks recovered for deer populations matched those of previous studies. Comparisons of the phylogeographic tree topology for deer lice with that of their hosts revealed a significant level of congruence. However, comparisons of genetic distances between deer and lice suggested that one of the estimated co-divergence events is more likely a recent host switch. Taking into account genetic divergence, there is not strong evidence for complete phylogeographic co-divergence between deer and their parasitic lice. However, mitochondrial phylogenies only track genetic structure of female lineages, and the incongruence between deer and louse phylogeography may be explained by louse migration mediated by male deer. Morphological analysis of head shape variation based on an elliptic Fourier descriptor showed that overall morphological variation contained phylogenetic signal, suggesting that in general morphology of these lice evolves congruent to population history.

Cercaria helvetica XXXIII Dubois and the cercaria of Sphaerostoma bramae (Müll.) are redescribed and their metacercariae, which occur in various invertebrates, are described. Additional observations are made on C. parvus Khan and C. tarda Khan and their metacercariae, occurring mainly in arthropods, are described. C. wentloogensis sp.nov. has four pairs of penetration glands, a slender, thickened stylet 0·03 mm long and the flame-cell formula

2[(2 + 2 + 2) + (2 + 2 + 2)].

C. rumniensis sp.nov. has four pairs of penetration glands lying dorsally to the acetabulum, a slender thickened stylet 0·03 mm long and at least 20 flame cells arranged in pairs. C. octoglandulata sp.nov. is a virgulate species with four pairs of penetration glands, a partially thickened stylet 0·029–0·032 mm long and the flame-cell formula 2[(3 + 3 + 3) + (3 + 3 + 3)]. Each of these new species develops in sporocysts in the digestive gland of the prosobranch mollusc Bithynia tentaculata. A cercaria occurring in the digestive gland of B. tentaculata and assigned to the Microphallidae on the structure of its metacercaria is considered to encyst in the digestive gland without emerging. It bears no stylet or penetration glands and the cysts occur in the snail in exceedingly large numbers.

All of these cercariae were found in freshwater molluscs collected at the Wentloog level near Cardiff, South Wales.

I am indebted to my friends, Messrs M. A. Moghe, of the College of Science, Nagpur, and W. V. Nene, Officer-in-charge of the Time-Ball Observatory, Rangoon, for the material described in this paper. The trematodes were obtained by the former from the duodenum of Uromastix hardwickii (the spinytailed lizard) brought to Nagpur from Northern India, and Mr Nene gave me the tortoise, Batagur baska, which was found to be heavily parasitised with nematodes, along with two flukes. In both instances the trematodes proved new to science.

We have established an amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) protocol for identifying anonymous polymorphic loci of the malarial parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. The method consists of the following steps (i) digestion and ligation in one reaction; (ii) selective fluorescence forward primers labelled; (iii) PCR products resolved in polyacrylamide gels using the ABIPRISMTM 377 XL DNA sequencer and, (iv) the use of GenescanTM software to size the fragments. This standardized protocol distinguished between 2 standard reference clones of P. falciparum from West African and Southeast Asian and 2 Central African isolates from patients with clinical malaria. The AFLP protocol resulted in evenly distributed and reproducible band patterns for amplified fragments ranking from 163 to 489 bp long ±0·5 S.D. The primer Tru ACA labelled with the phosphoramidite 6-carboxifluorescein (FAM-blue) was easy to interpret, with a maximum of 53 bands per clone and of 81 per isolate (mixed falciparum populations) whereas the primer Tru AG labelled with the hexachlorinated analogue (HEX-green) showed a less clear pattern of bands and reproducibility than Tru ACA.

Invasive stages of apicomplexan parasites require a host cell to survive, proliferate and advance to the next life cycle stage. Once invasion is achieved, apicomplexans interact closely with the host cell cytoskeleton, but in many cases the different species have evolved distinct mechanisms and pathways to modulate the structural organization of cytoskeletal filaments. The host cell cytoskeleton is a complex network, largely, but not exclusively, composed of microtubules, actin microfilaments and intermediate filaments, all of which are modulated by associated proteins, and it is involved in diverse functions including maintenance of cell morphology and mechanical support, migration, signal transduction, nutrient uptake, membrane and organelle trafficking and cell division. The ability of apicomplexans to modulate the cytoskeleton to their own advantage is clearly beneficial. We here review different aspects of the interactions of apicomplexans with the three main cytoskeletal filament types, provide information on the currently known parasite effector proteins and respective host cell targets involved, and how these interactions modulate the host cell physiology. Some of these findings could provide novel targets that could be exploited for the development of preventive and/or therapeutic strategies.

The faeces of five elands (Orias canna syn. Taurotragus oryx) from Ascania Nova (Ukraine) were examined after concentration by Darling's method. Coccidial oocysts were found in the faeces of one of the animals. The oocysts were 21–24μ in length and 15–19μ. in breadth, with an average size of 21·1×17·8 The largest measured 24×19μ and the smallest 21×15μ The shape-index was 1:0·71–0·85, with an average of 1:0·85.

Three pure-line strains started from single individuals, 2 of Trichomonas and 1 of Eutrichomastix, all from snakes, were isolated from mixed cultures. These strains, and another of Eutrichomastix from a chamaeleon, were under observation for periods of from 3 to 10 weeks.

The Eutrichomastix of snakes does not differ from that of the chamaeleon in any essential point, and neither developed an undulating membrane at any time during this prolonged period of observation.

The Trichomonas of the grass-snake is morphologically distinct from that of the boa. Trichomonas of the boa has an ill-developed undulating membrane with only a few shallow waves, and may simulate a Eutrichomastix owing to the accidental detachment of the bordering flagellum.

Trichomonas from snakes, as from most other hosts, readily feeds upon starch granules, whereas none of the Eutrichomastix were found to ingest unaltered starch.

Eutrichomastix from snakes and the chamaeleon never develops an undulating membrane and does not assume a Trichomonas form.

From these observations it can be definitely concluded that Trichomonas and Eutrichomastix are generically distinct.