This study investigates the impact of environmental factors and genotype-by-environment interactions (GEI) on the expression of maydis leaf blight (MLB) resistance in a diverse maize germplasm comprising 359 genotypes. Extensive field trials were conducted, involving artificial inoculations and disease scoring across two locations over two years. Using genotype and genotype–environment (GGE) biplot analysis based on the site regression model (SREG), we identified stable MLB-resistant 10 donors with consistent genotypic responses. These inbred lines, which consistently exhibited disease scores of ⩽3 across locations, are recommended as potential parents for breeding MLB-resistant varieties. Furthermore, the identification of a non-crossover interaction and high correlations among testing locations allowed us to define a single mega-environment for the initial screening of MLB resistance in a large set of maize germplasm. This study suggests that initial screenings can be efficiently conducted in one representative location, with validation of resistant lines at multiple sites during advanced breeding stages. This approach optimizes the use of land, labour and resources in MLB resistance testing.

Kokum [Garcinia indica (Thouars) Choisy] is a multi-purpose tree with culinary, cosmetics and pharmaceutical uses found popular in Konkan region of India. ICAR-NBPGR Regional Station, Thrissur made a systematic exploration and collection missions on kokum over a period from 1987–2004 and collected 31 accessions from various parts of Konkan region to characterize them using morphological characters and also to investigate their flowering and fruiting behaviour. Totally, 85 trees planted in Field Gene Bank in which only 67 trees (23 accessions) survived during field establishment. Among them, 32 (47.8%) were male and remaining 25 identified as female (37.3%) and 10 as co-sexual (14.9%). Fruit bearing ability noticed only in both female and co-sexual trees with huge variation in fruits. Morphological characterization of 33 trees with fruiting (23 accessions) for 35 morphological traits revealed presence of considerable amount of variation among them on basis of CV%. Highest positive correlation observed between fresh seed weight and fresh kernel weight (0.92). Cluster analysis formed four major clusters with Cluster I and II comprising male/bisexual genotypes and Cluster III and IV with female genotypes and it clearly distinguished male/bisexual genotypes from female ones. PCA analysis accounted 65.6% of genetic variation present among accessions by first three most informative PCs. Superior accessions identified for important traits will be more useful in industrial aspects of preparing kokum butter and juice. Further, seasonal difference identified in fruiting and maturity of fruits well-before onset of monsoon may be exploited by kokum industries for drying and processing of fruits.

Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt; family: Myristicaceae) is an important tree spice of great export value due to the presence of secondary metabolites with scope in health, wellness and cosmetic industries. Its dioecious in nature due to which it is propagated by budding and grafting which requires specialised skill and as a result authentic planting material production is very expensive. Based on the constant demand from farmers and stakeholders for a suitable, fast and easy technique for determining the authenticity of nutmeg varieties, an attempt was made to develop morphological and molecular markers for the identification of three commercial varieties that are in high demand in India; viz. IISR Vishwashree, IISR Keralashree, Sindhushree and a monoecious nutmeg (MN) accession, along with their biochemical profiles. Among the various morphological characters as per distinctiveness, uniformity and stability guidelines, the varieties showed distinctness mainly in leaf shape, shape of female flowers, fruit shape and seed shape. Out of 35 ISSR primers screened, six primers viz., IS 02, ISSR 12, ISSR 05, ISSR 14, ISSR 01 and UBC 834 generated clear, unique reproducible polymorphic bands capable of distinguishing the varieties. Among the varieties analysed, MN was found to be superior in terms of seed butter and essential oil in nut, mace and leaves. IISR Vishwashree was on par with MN in nut essential oil content. IISR Keralashree was superior in terms of oleoresin in nuts and mace. The morphological and molecular markers identified may be used for effective checking of authenticity of planting materials of commercially grown nutmeg varieties.

Ortet selection remains an integral component of cacao breeding programme to develop improved clones and expand the gene pool of available germplasm. This study assessed the population structure of 168 cacao clones developed recently from selected ortets in on-station and on-farm progeny trials in Ghana using 45 SNP markers. Selection of ortets was primarily based on high bean yield, high yield efficiency, adaptability to marginal growing conditions, and low incidence of black pod and cocoa swollen shoot virus diseases. Additionally, 58 SNPs were employed to verify the parentage of 752 bi-clonal seedlings supplied to farmers for commercial plantations. Pairwise multilocus matching based on 45 SNPs showed that the 168 clones were all distinct. Overall, the clones had moderate genetic diversity (He = 0.349 ± 0.022) and shared ancestry with Marañón, Guiana, Contamana, Iquitos, Amelonado, Trinitario, Nanay and Purús based on Bayesian clustering, principal coordinates, and parentage analyses. Parentage analysis of bi-clonal seedlings assigned parent-offspring trios (>80% confidence level) to 65.2% of the farmers' varieties based on breeder's active clone collection. The results of the parentage analysis suggested the existence of mislabelled clones in the seed gardens, necessitating the need for correct clone identification or rogueing. Taken together, this study presents a new group of cacao genetic resources with potential to broaden the gene pool of cacao in cacao improvement programmes. Further, the study conveys evidence of the need for countries with established seed garden systems to constantly monitor the genetic purity of seedlings produced from the seed gardens.

Casuarina equisetifolia L. commonly called whistling pine is an economically and industrially important tree species with global significance. Although species possess versatile importance worldwide, efforts imparted for selection and designing a robust model of selection index are inadequate. The selection process, based on quantitative and qualitative traits, identified 15 superior trees from the eastern coastal plain of Odisha. These superior trees showcased exceptional qualitative and quantitative attributes. Correlation analysis highlighted key similarities among various traits like volume and above ground biomass (AGB), volume and diameter at breast height (DBH), DBH and AGB, DBH and Tree Height (TH), crown length (CL), height, AGB and height. Principal component analysis emphasized substantial contributions of traits like DBH, height, CL, crown width, AGB and volume across different clusters. Furthermore, culmination resulted in a comprehensive selection index, integrating both qualitative and quantitative characters, reaching 52.04, signifying superior performance among specific accessions. The current study provides valuable insights into selection and designing optimal selection index of C. equisetifolia, guiding future decisions concerning optimal wood production and resource management.

Understanding genetic structure and chromosomal characteristics is essential for developing effective breeding programmes and improving plant species. This research compared karyotypic features of 10 plant populations of Populus euphratica from various regions of Iran. Fresh roots grown from cuttings of the populations were used to get metaphase cells. Then several chromosomal parameters were recorded and analysed using a nested statistical model. All the studied populations were diploid, with 2n = 38 chromosomes, consisting of medium and sub-medium chromosome types. Significant differences (P ⩽ 0.01) were observed between the plant populations in chromosomal dimensions and arm ratios, suggesting chromosomal rearrangements. Chromosome lengths in the studied populations ranged from 0.69 to 3.38 μm. Intra-chromosomal index (A1) showed clear asymmetrical differences between the plant populations. Furthermore, using Stebbins's standards, the studied populations classified as 1A and 1B classes, demonstrated more asymmetry than those categorized as 1B and 2B, respectively. Cytological differences between the plant populations, collected from different parts of the country, showed that chromosome structural rearrangements are responsible for the speciation and adaption of the species against the mentioned variable ecological conditions and play a key role in response to diverse climatic and geographical conditions.

Annona crassiflora is a fruit-bearing tree species native to the Cerrado that has ecological and economic potential, mainly due to the production of attractive and useful fruits for a number of species, including humans. To provide a basis for its conservation and breeding, the objective was to assess the diversity and genetic structure of natural populations of the species using inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) molecular markers. Eight populations were analysed in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, with 24 individuals randomly sampled in each population, reaching a total of 192 trees. Ten ISSR primers were used, resulting in high genetic diversity for the combined data (H* = 0.35 and I* = 0.52). However, a wide range of representative values was observed in the individual assessment of populations, with JAN, GM and MC standing out for their low genetic diversity, resulting in H* of 0.19, 0.23 and 0.24 and I* of 0.28, 0.34 and 0.35, respectively. An analysis of molecular variance showed greater variation within populations, indicating gene flow (Nm), but genetic differentiation between populations was moderate. Bayesian analysis, although resulting in four genetic groups, revealed the presence of a majority group for the GM and JAN populations. We propose measures to maintain these populations, such as raising awareness of local extractivism and planting genetically divergent seedlings. Furthermore, we recommend including of all populations in conservation and breeding programmes, aiming to cover the maximum genetic variation for the species.

Asiatic cotton (Gossypium arboreum L.) has evolved in the Indian subcontinent and is known for its adaptability to low-input management conditions. In the present study, 300 diverse G. arboreum lines, including 100 Nandyal arboreum breeding lines (NAB), 132 Arboreum germplasm collections (AGC) and 68 long-linted arboreum genotypes (LLA), were evaluated for fibre quality to assess the diversity among them and to identify promising genotypes with desirable fibre traits. Significant variations were observed among the genotypes for the studied fibre-quality traits. Principal component analysis showed that the traits micronaire (Mic) and elongation percentage (E%) followed by upper half mean length (UHML) and bundle tenacity (tenacity) were the most significant contributors to variation. Cluster analysis based on the Euclidian distance method showed 16 clusters among 300 G. arboreum genotypes. The genotypes in cluster 4 have desirable UHML, tenacity and UI (uniformity index) traits, and cluster 12 has Mic and E% traits. Furthermore, the number of genotypes with desirable fibre-quality traits was found to be higher in the AGC group than in the LLA and NAB groups. The trait tenacity followed by the UHML showed relatively higher Shannon–Weiner diversity index values across different genotypic groups. Based on the superior performance, the genotypes PA 847, PA 809, PA 837, PA 863, NDLA 3147-2, NDLA 2974 and NDLA 3081 were found to be having desirable fibre traits. The identified promising genotypes are valuable genetic resources for improving fibre quality in G. arboreum cotton.

Panax L., renowned as ginseng genus, is a famous medicinal group of family Araliaceae. Within this genus, the taxa of Panax bipinnatifidus complex are mainly distributed in Himalayas and Hengduan Mountain areas. Due to the complex evolutionary history and short-term rapid radiation, the relationships among species within the complex have not been clearly resolved, and the taxa identification is difficult due to the intermediate morphological traits. This study aimed to use the available restriction-site associated DNA sequence data from 29 individuals of P. bipinnatifidus complex to mine high-polymorphic simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers, with the goal of evaluating their utility in taxa identification. Eleven polymorphic SSR loci were ultimately selected and validated through polymerase chain reactions amplifying across 63 individuals of P. bipinnatifidus complex and 13 individuals of three outgroup species. The subsequent genetic diversity analysis uncovered 76 alleles in total, ranging from 5 to 15 per locus. Observed heterozygosity spanned 0.241–0.512, while expected heterozygosity ranged between 0.345 and 0.644. The genetic kinship analysis revealed a sister relationship between Panax zingiberensis and Panax vietnamensis. The analysis result also supported the classification of samples from Hunan and Hubei provinces into a single genetic unit within the P. bipinnatifidus complex. These newly developed SSR markers will facilitate the identification of wild ginseng plants.

This study investigated the combining ability, heterosis and heterotic grouping of maize (Zea mays L.) inbred lines to enhance hybrid performance and productivity. Twenty-four hybrids were developed by crossing eight inbred lines with three testers, and their performance was evaluated for two years at Banaras Hindu University's agricultural research farm. Data on yield and yield-attributing traits were collected from selectively centred competitive plants in each row, avoiding border plants to reduce errors. Biometrical techniques, cluster analysis, and statistical tools were employed to measure general combining ability (GCA), specific combining ability (SCA), and standard heterosis, providing insights into hybrid performance. Analysis of variance revealed significant mean square values for GCA and SCA across most traits studied. Various methods were utilized, including SCA effects, HGCAMT (Heterosis Grouping by Combining Ability of Multiple Traits), and HSGCA (Heterotic Grouping based on Specific and General Combining Ability). The study identified HUZM-242 × CML-286 and HUZM-53 × CML-286 as crosses displaying higher grain yield compared to the check line DKC 7074 and exhibiting positive heterosis. The findings offer valuable guidance for maize breeding programmes by accurately identifying heterotic groups, enabling breeders to select inbred lines more likely to produce high-performing hybrids. This targeted selection reduces the number of necessary cross-breeding trials, saving time and resources. Additionally, hybrids derived from crosses between lines from different heterotic groups exhibit superior performance due to higher heterosis. These conclusions support advancements in maize breeding strategies, ultimately contributing to agricultural sustainability through increased productivity, resource efficiency, and economic benefits for farmers.

Melia azedarach L. commonly called Maha Neem is an economically and industrially important tree species with global significance. Although species possess versatile importance worldwide, information on reproductive biology and breeding system is scarce and limited for eastern coastal plain of India. Therefore, current study provides a detailed report on reproductive biology of M. azedarach. Maha Neem was found to bear violet to whitish violet, slightly fragrant, 14.99 ± 0.05 mm. long and 17.01 ± 0.08 mm. wide flowers. This tree commenced opening of floral buds during March and continued until May with a peak during March-end. The anthesis of species peaked between 08:00 and 10:00 am, which coincides with insect activity. Anthers were observed to dehisce during or shortly before anthesis; however, stigma started receptivity before anthesis and continued invitation up to 12 h after anthesis. Pollen viability ranged from 96.67 ± 1.6% to 98.26 ± 1.2 at the time of anthesis; after that decreased rapidly. Pollen: ovule ratio of 1096.38 ± 108.70 indicated the possibility of autogamy. The breeding system of M. azedarach revealed that fruit sets under natural pollination (NP) were significantly higher than Xenogamy. However, substantial difference was not reported in fruit set percentage under natural pollination and Autogamy, which is strong evidence in favour of self-pollination. Moreover, Maha-Neem is entomophilous with frequent visits by Apis and Syrphid flies. Current findings will be helpful in designing potent conservation strategies and planning successful breeding programmes.

Gamma ray-induced mutations have been widely used to improve existing crop germplasm and create novel genetic variation. In the current study, a multi-year experiment was carried out to induce and isolate mutants with desirable agro-morphological traits and improved grain hardness through evaluation of induced mutant populations generated in soft-textured wheat variety HPW 89 irradiated with gamma ray dose of 250, 300 and 350 Gy. Mutagen sensitivity studies revealed a higher frequency of biological damage and seedling mortality for doses beyond 300 Gy in the M1 generation. However, the mutagenic treatments in the M2–3 populations significantly altered the magnitude of the biometrical traits. Results from the variability and association studies among traits showed that biological yield per plant, 1000-grain weight, spike length, grains per spike and plant height may be prioritized for higher genetic gain and could be used as selection criteria parameters. Multivariate analysis indicated induction of heterogeneity among mutant populations. Overall, 250–300 Gy doses were found ideal for a successful wheat mutation programme and 293 agro-morphologically superior wheat mutants were identified, out of which 108 had semi-hard grain texture based on single kernel characterization system. Among these, nine mutants were found to have the highest grain hardness index due to induced changes in one or both puroindoline genes. Hence, these mutants identified for several traits along with harder grain texture will serve as important genetic resource in future wheat-breeding programmes.

Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is a widely cultivated vegetable in India with enormous variability. Recent molecular techniques revealed three closely related but distinct Solanum species (S. melongena, S. incanum and S. insanum), with the Indian subcontinent being a domesticated centre. Spontaneous hybridization between S. insanum and S. melongena has led to the formation of naturally introgressed lines and limited studies are available to differentiate these genotypes using morphological key traits. Current study aimed to delineate naturally introgressed genotypes of Indian eggplant collections using morphological key traits for plant genetic resources (PGR) management and assess available genetic diversity. The study characterized a collection of 157 eggplant germplasm at ICAR-NBPGR, Regional Station, Kerala, and identified 30 naturally introgressed, 10 wild progenitors and 117 cultivated eggplants. The key morphological traits are prickliness (stem, petiole, calyx and pedicle), leaf base shape, fruit shape and size. Other fruit traits such as length, breadth and mesocarp texture could also provide some clues for delineating introgressed genotypes from S. insanum and S. melongena. Basic statistical analysis of six quantitative traits of 157 eggplant genotypes revealed the presence of considerable amount of variation (CV%) in which fruit length/breadth ratio showed higher variation (73.87) followed by fruit length (54.73) and average fruit weight (53.5). The frequency distribution of 14 qualitative traits revealed the presence of all character states among them. Key traits identified under study could provide clues to identify individual plants at field level to plant taxonomist/explorers and also to aid gene bank curators for PGR management.

This research aimed to assess the agronomic performance of the progeny (F3 and F4 generations) of 48 newly developed Aus rice lines, using a randomized-complete-block-design under rainfed conditions. We found a wide range of variations in yield and yield-contributing traits among the studied genotypes. High board sense heritability percentages were found for sterility percentage (99.50 and 97.20), thousand-grain-weight (88.10 and 90.20 g), plant-height (84.90 and 86.90 cm) and day-to-maturity (84.50 and 97.60 d) in both F3 and F4 generations, respectively. However, the highest genetic advance as mean percentage was observed for sterility (48.00 and 50.60), effective tillers number per hill (ET) (44.70 and 47.10), total tillers number per hill (TT) (43.00 and 45.40) and filled-grains per panicle (41.00 and 43.20) respectively. Notably, the correlation study also identified the traits, TT (r = 0.31 and 0.45), ET (r = 0.30 and 0.44), straw yield (r = 0.57 and 0.39) and harvest index (r = 0.63 and 0.67) as effective for improving grain yield in both F3 and F4 generations, respectively. We identified higher grain yield per hill (g) and shorter to moderate crop growth duration (days) in several distinct accessions, including R1-49-7-1-1, R3-26-4-3-1, R1-6-2-3-1, R1-13-1-1-1, R1-50-1-1-1, R3-49-4-3-1, R1-47-7-3-1, R2-26-6-2-2, R3-30-1-2-1 and R1-44-1-2-1, among the 48 genotypes in both the F3 and F4 generations. A further location-specific agronomic study is recommended to assess the drought tolerance of these promising genotypes. This will further assess their suitability as potential breeding materials when developing rice varieties adapted to grow under fluctuating rainfalls conditions.

Pear (Pyrus communis L.) stands out as a prominent fruit species in temperate regions worldwide. The Çoruh River basin, nestled in the lower Caucasus in Türkiye, serves as a valuable repository of pear germplasm. To elucidate the genetic structure of pear populations in this region, 84 village pear cultivar genotypes (land races) from six villages, sample garden collections (SCC), and wild Panta root stock populations were analysed using eleven microsatellite markers. Genetic diversity and structure analyses indicated that village pear cultivar populations exhibit substantial genetic diversity and admixture. This diversity is attributed to local farming practices such as phenotypic selection and widespread dispersal of clonal materials. The genetic structure analysis, combined with the identification of private alleles, indicates that the pear genetic resources in the Çoruh river basin likely has originated from two gene pool sources, specifically the Meydancık and Camili village pear traditional cultivar populations. The Camili village pear cultivar population as a new in situ genetic reserve site has been proposed. Despite the existence an ex situ conservation site, the study suggests inadequateness of SCC as an ex situ site in capturing the full extent of genetic diversity of village pear cultivar genetic resources. Thus, enriching the genetic diversity in the SCC ex situ site is essential for effective pear genetic resource conservation in the Çoruh river basin. These findings contribute valuable insights for the development of targeted conservation strategies, ensuring the preservation of pear genetic resources in this region.

Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) is rich in curcuminoids, which are polyphenolic pigments make it one of the most valuable spice and medicinal plant. The rising need for natural colours and the numerous health advantages of curcuminoids are driving up the demand of turmeric. In this study, the effects of genotype and genotype × environment on the colour characteristics of 21 turmeric genotypes were examined in three different production environments namely vertical farming, greenhouse, and field conditions. The pooled analysis of variance revealed highly significant (P < 0.05) differences among genotypes (G), environments (E), and G × E interaction for three colour parameters [L* (lightness index), A* (redness index), B* (yellowness index)]. Among the genotypes, the values ranged from 41.80 to 54.76, 13.92 to 24.83 and 31.72 to 47.67 for L*, A*, B*, respectively. Erode Local (22.34), IISR Pragati (24.56) and IISR Prathiba (26.55) recorded maximum A* value under vertical farming, greenhouse, and field conditions, respectively. Correlation analysis between colour values and curcuminoids revealed a significant positive correlation (r = 0.608–0.735, P < 0.001) between A* value and curcuminoids. Furthermore, stability analysis for A* value revealed 78.87% genotype × environment interaction (GEI) from the first two principal components of GGE biplot. IISR Pragati and Waigon Turmeric are best was most stable for A* value across environments. Our study revealed that colour traits among genotypes vary widely and are strongly impacted by genetic and environmental factors. These findings are crucial for future breeding programs to enhance turmeric's colour, ensuring high-quality, stable products for producers and consumers.

Early morning flowering (EMF) is a desirable trait in rice to avoid heat stress as temperatures in early morning hours are low compared to afternoon and flowering is the most sensitive stage to heat exposure. Cultivated rice accessions including both Oryza glaberrima and O. sativa were phenotyped for an EMF trait in 2016–2018 in two locations viz. Cotonou in Benin Republic and Ibadan in Nigeria. The initial screening was done in Cotonou in three phases in 2016 dry season, 2017 wet season and 2017 dry season, respectively. The 2093 accessions used in initial screening were subdivided into three groups based on flowering duration ensuring that each accession was grown under conditions which were best suited to their flowering duration. Further screening was done in Ibadan in 2018 dry season and 2018 wet season. Out of 2093 accessions taken in the initial screening only 1754 accessions germinated out of which only 64 accessions exhibited EMF phenotype consistently across the cultivated years, seasons and locations. Among the 64 accessions exhibiting EMF phenotype, 15 accessions also showed an early peak in spikelet opening time (EPSOT) trait, more than 80% flowering before 09:00 h. We conclude that 15 O. glaberrima accessions identified possessing both the EMF and EPSOT traits are suitable donors for use in breeding for heat escape in rice.

In the present study we evaluated a core set of 254 cowpea genotypes for seven pod physical traits and shattering score using a modified weighted average screening system based on random impact assessment. There was substantial variability in all the pod physical traits and shattering score in the cowpea core collection indicating significant diversity of the material in respect of pod traits. Shattering score had a mean value of 5.39 with a range of 0–10. Out of 254 genotypes, 34 were resistant, 83 were moderately resistant, 82 were moderately susceptible and 55 were highly susceptible. Shattering score had significant negative correlation with pod length followed by pod weight, pod breadth, seeds per pod, pod wall weight and pod thickness. PCA concentrated 69.60% variability in the first two principal components with Eigen value of 4.49 for PC1 and 1.07 for PC2, mainly contributed by pod weight, pod length, pod breadth, pod thickness and pod wall weight. The conventional screening methods are based on level of shattering and do not take into account various types of shattering such as fissured, split, twisted or abscised. The present was aimed at identification of shattering resistant genotypes using a modified screening method based on weighted level averages. The study identified several genotypes highly resistant to pod shattering that can be used to develop shattering resistant cowpea varieties for sustainable cowpea farming and highlights the effectiveness of proposed screening method.

Use of diverse germplasm for generating heterotic hybrids is the foremost requirement in maize. The present study was conducted by using a diverse set of inbred lines and the line × tester method was applied to identify best performing lines and to group QPM inbred lines into different heterotic groups. The test crosses, developed by following line (66) × tester (CML 161 and CML 165) mating design, were evaluated during winter 2013, rainy 2014 and 2015 seasons at Begusarai and Ludhiana, respectively. Based on the specific combining ability, the lines were categorized into two heterotic groups. Out of 66 novel inbreds, 18 lines with significant SCA with CML165 were classified in group A, 16 inbreds with significant SCA with CML161 were classified in group B and 20 inbreds with significant GCA were classified in group (AB). Nine inbred lines were selected based on their positive GCA values and pedigree crosses were developed in rainy season in 2017. Three crosses were made in heterotic group A and four crosses were in group B for synthesizing new inbred lines by using pedigree method. Heterotic grouping based inbred evaluation trial and biochemical analysis were carried out to estimate per se yield potential of developed lines and to estimate tryptophan content. QIL-4-2491 (Group-A) and QIL-4-2401 (Group-B) were the top yielders. A total of 25 crosses were made among the heterotic groups (A and B) by using 22 lines from groups A and B and three best performing hybrids were identified.

Salvia miltiorrhiza is an outcrossing and perennial herb native to China. Although well-known for its medicinal value, there is a lack of knowledge regarding its natural population genetics. Here, we used 12 microsatellite markers to investigated population genetic diversity and structure of 215 samples from populations naturally distributed in central eastern China. A moderate level of genetic diversity was detected probably due to the over-mining of its roots. The allelic richness (AR) ranged from 3.034 to 4.889 with an average of 3.891. Moreover, pairwise estimates of FST among the populations of S. miltiorrhiza varied from 0.036 to 0.312 and two clusters were obtained by STRUCTURE and discriminant analysis of principal components. It is likely that the genetic differentiation of these two clusters was formed during glacial periods. Our result provides insights into the conservation of this valuable medicinal plant.