The majority of cropland in the rain-fed region of the North Central District of Oklahoma in the US is seeded with winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) and most of it is in continuous wheat production. When annual crops are grown in monocultures, weed species and disease agents may become established and expensive to control. For many years prior to 1996, federal policy provided incentives for District producers to grow wheat and disincentives to diversify. In 1996, the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform (FAIR) Act (Freedom to Farm Act) was instituted, followed by the Farm Security and Rural Investment Act (FSRIA) in 2002. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of FAIR and FSRIA programs on crop diversity in the North Central District of Oklahoma. The economics of three systems, monoculture continuous winter wheat, continuous soybean (Glycine max) and a soybean–winter wheat–soybean rotation, were compared using cash market prices (CASH), CASH plus the effective loan deficiency payments (a yield-dependent subsidy) of the FAIR Act of 1996, and CASH plus the effective loan deficiency payments of the FSRIA of 2002. We found that the loan deficiency payment structure associated with FAIR provided a non-market incentive that favored soybean. However, under provisions of the 2002 FSRIA, the incentive for soybean was adjusted, resulting in greater expected returns for continuous wheat. Due to erratic weather, soybean may not be a good alternative for the region. Research is needed to identify crops that will fit in a rotation with wheat.

The extension of agroecology requires an alternative extension pedagogy. Agroecology is more than merely the promotion of new technologies or practices, but rather a fresh understanding of how to optimize the configuration of biological and technological components of farming systems informed by ecological principles. This necessarily requires a shift in roles among growers and extensionists so that they can actively participate in networks of social learning. Agro-environmental partnerships have emerged in California as the primary strategy for extending alternative, agroecological knowledge in conventional agriculture. Partnerships are an intentional, multi-year relationship among at least growers, a growers' organization, and one or more scientists to extend agroecological knowledge and protect natural resources through a field-scale demonstration. Partnerships have been particularly successful in perennial crop farming systems, and have played critical roles in helping California's almond and pear growers to reduce organophosphate use by over 75%. This study provides a cross partnership comparison of grower participation in partnerships and proposes a five-part typology to rank this.

Organic farmers throughout Austria were asked in 1999 if, once the first agri-environmental program (ÖPUL) ends, they intended to commit themselves to a further five-year period of organic farming. The study presented here addresses those farmers who expressed in the survey the intention to end their participation in organic farming under ÖPUL, or who were undecided at that time. The aim was to compare and analyze the intended behavior with actual behavior. The research was based on material from, and analyses of, the 1999 survey and the survey conducted in 2002. Additional information regarding the reasons for abandoning (or continuing) organic farming and the decision-making process itself was collected through a series of telephone interviews in 2004. The comparison revealed a connection between actual behavior and the intentions expressed in the 1999 survey. However, there were no clear differences in terms of the reasons given in 1999 for potentially discontinuing with organic farming between those farms that remained organic and those that reverted to conventional farming methods. There were differences between those reasons given in the 1999 survey for potentially leaving organic agriculture and the reasons that determined the actual decision, as cited in telephone interviews in 2004. In the 1999 survey, economic issues were the main reasons for potentially ceasing to farm organically. When it came to the actual decision, problems concerning organic guidelines and inspections were more prominent. The environmental attitudes and the social embedding of the farmers within organic agriculture played a decisive role on those enterprises that chose to continue farming organically. The analysis indicates that the presence of a successor is also a stabilizing factor for organic farming.

In organic pasture systems, the balance of soil fertility is maintained by maximizing the cycling of on-farm nutrients. In this study, the effect of fertility management on dry matter yield in organic pasture systems was examined using an unreplicated 25 factorial design. The factors were nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), compost and seaweed extract, each at two levels (with [+] and without [−]). The trials were conducted in 2000 and 2001 at two fields on an organic dairy farm in Nova Scotia, Canada. The pasture mix is predominantly perennial ryegrass, orchardgrass and white clover. The fertility treatments were applied in spring, and forage yield was collected from early-, mid- and late-summer harvests. The analysis revealed the significance of several interaction effects, which varied considerably from harvest to harvest. Both +N and +Compost treatments were associated with increased yield. High levels of P and K already present in the soil either diminished or varied the effects of P and K treatments. Seaweed extract enhanced the effectiveness of N and compost, but reduced yield when used alone. The results suggest that the commonly recommended use of seaweed extract for organic pasture management can be detrimental to biomass production unless sufficient nitrogen is provided. Despite the unusually dry weather in the 2 years, the study demonstrated the applicability of unreplicated two-level factorial experiments in agricultural field studies.

Short food supply chains (SFSCs) and civic agriculture are emerging as promising means to support small and medium-sized farms, revitalize rural communities and transform producer/consumer relationships. To find out more about SFSCs and civic agriculture in Maine and to examine factors that promote their success, this study interviewed 31 successful, locally focused Maine farmers and observed many of their market outlets. The study documented the nature and extent of each farm enterprise and each marketing outlet. Farmers were asked to describe their goals, their reasons for success, what they would do differently, and what major problems they had encountered. In the interviews, key factors found to support successful locally focused farming were civic involvement in local communities, production of high-quality products tailored to customer wants and needs, vision and planning pursued in a flexible and adaptive fashion, and personal relationships with customers that foster ongoing mutual education and provide marketing feedback to the farmers. Major challenges revolve around the need for farmland preservation policies, training and financial support for new farmers, working capital for new and experienced farmers, business planning assistance, and lack of infrastructure, such as meat slaughtering and grain milling facilities.

Cotton production is the number one crop enterprise in Georgia in terms of revenue generation. However, due to continuous deterioration of soil quality with conventional tillage and chemical fertilizer application, the economic viability and sustainability of cotton production in Georgia are questionable. Residue management systems (RMSs) comprising winter cover crops were analyzed as an alternative to the existing system, which consists of conventional tillage and chemical fertilizer using yield benefit, net revenue, carbon sequestration, and yield efficiency criteria. Four different RMSs were examined for profitability and input efficiency. Four RMSs encompassing tillage versus no-till and chemical versus organic sources of plant nutrients were compared for their yield and net return differences. No-till and poultry litter with a cover crop was the only system with a positive return and crop yield based on the results from experimental data. Limited results from the experimental field were reinforced using a simulation study. When cotton yield is simulated with an alternative level of organic matter and nitrogen application, production function shows efficiency in input application at the higher level of organic matter. Regression results based on an erosion productivity impact calculator/environmental policy integrated climate (EPIC) simulation indicated that, in the long term, a no-till and poultry litter system may have promise in the region. The results from simulation confirm the results from the experimental study. This study reflected a need to change the cotton management system from the 200-year-old practice of employing intensively cultivated conventional tillage and chemical fertilizers to a new renewable resource-based system where residue management and organic sources of nutrients would be the key components.

This paper provides an input–output (I/O)-based economic impact analysis for organic apple production in Washington State. The intent is to compare the economic ‘ripple’ effect of organic production with conventional production. The analysis is presented in two scenarios: first we compare the economic impact of organic versus conventional apple production for a final demand increase of US$1 million as measured in sales. In the second analysis, the economic impacts of organic and conventional apple production are compared in terms of a given unit of land (405 ha of production). Both state-wide output (sales) and employment (jobs) impacts are estimated under each scenario. Results are presented in terms of direct, indirect, and induced economic impact. Organic apple production was more labor intensive than conventional production. While the organic apple sector used less intermediate inputs per unit of output than conventional production, it also produced higher returns to labor and capital. As a result, the indirect economic effect was lower for the organic sector than the conventional sector, but the induced economic effect was higher for organic. Given the organic price premium, the economic impact (direct, indirect and induced) was larger for organic apple production than conventional apple production.