In Vienna, consultants, organic farmers and green-minded consumers have developed a new concept of urban organic farming, called Selbsternte (’self-harvest‘). Organic farmers prepare a plot of arable land (the Selbsternte plot) and sow or plant rows composed of 18–23 plant species. In mid-May the plots are divided into subplots that contain 2–6 m of every sown species and are rented to so-called self-harvesters for a period of about 136 days. In 2002 Selbsternte was being practiced at 15 plots in Vienna or in neighboring cities, represented by 861 subplots, with a total area of 68,740 m2, and managed by 12 organic farmers for 861 registered self-harvesters. At the Roter Berg plot, experimental subplots were established to evaluate yields and the value of the harvested produce, and interviews were conducted with 27 self-harvesters, the eight Selbsternte farmers and one Selbsternte consultant. The experimental subplots were managed in two different ways, namely, ’with low intensity‘ (LIS) and ’with high intensity‘ (HIS; meaning additional harrowing, mulching and sowing of additional plants). At the LIS 24.2 h and at the HIS 38.9 h of work were invested over 51 days. Monetary investment was US$184 for the LIS and US$259 for the HIS subplots. The total harvest of fresh produce was: 163 kg subplot–1 for LIS and 208 kg subplot–1 for HIS subplots. The total value of the harvest at the HIS was US$364 for conventional and US$766 for organic prices. All self-harvesters saw the rental of a subplot and the work as an activity of leisure. More than half of the self-harvesters reported ’trying something new‘ at their subplots. The most frequently mentioned innovation for them was growing an unknown species. Twenty-five self-harvesters sowed 54 different, additional plant species. The motivating factors in establishing Selbsternte plots, as reported by all the farmers, were, primarily, better relations with consumers and work diversification, and only then were economic factors a consideration. The contribution of Selbsternte to income varied at the farms, being between 0 and 30% of the total farm income. As a main success factor, all of the farmers reported a close relationship between the self-harvesters and the farmers. Selbsternte subplots can be understood as small experimental stations where self-harvesters merge traditional horticultural techniques with urban ideas on permaculture, sustainable land use and participatory farming. Selbsternte has potential value for the improvement of urban agriculture, but also for the development of organic farming in general.

Small farmers face more challenges in farming than ever before. Examples include competition and consolidation within the global marketplace and low and unpredictable product prices. Evaluation and development of alternative market outlets is one means of helping small farms to become more economically sustainable. From 2000 to 2020 the US population is expected to increase by between 50 and 80 million people. A concomitant increase in consumer demand for local, fresh, specialty and organic produce is also projected. Alternative market outlets that skillfully link local or regional small-scale production with evolving consumer demand are currently lacking. We hypothesize that there is considerable potential for helping small farmers sustain or improve their economic position and fulfill consumer needs by exploiting these connections in the marketplace. This investigation draws from the literature to ascertain whether horticultural auction markets may provide such a link for small farms. The paper characterizes horticultural auction markets using current and historical examples, discusses marketplace changes with special reference to consumer demand, and appraises the value of this market model with respect to the dual challenge of meeting both farmers' and consumers' needs. Current marketplace research and characteristics suggest measured optimism for horticultural auction markets to provide a small farm–consumer link.

Cover crops offer many benefits for farmers seeking to reduce their reliance on external inputs. These include maintaining and improving soil quality, preventing erosion and, in some cases, allelopathic weed control. Allelopathic potential has been well documented for cover crops such as cereal rye (Secale cereale L.), hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth) and red clover (Trifolium pratense L.). Much less is known about other potentially allelopathic cover crops, including certain brassicaceous species that are normally grown for their oilseeds, including canola and rapeseed (both Brassica napus L.) and mustards (e.g., Sinapis alba L., white and yellow mustard). Because of their potential contribution to pest management, there is increased interest in growing brassicas, both as cover crops and as seed crops harvested for oil production. In this review, we first discuss unique attributes of brassicas that make them promising options for pest management, as well as generally beneficial cover crops. Next, we review the literature from controlled settings on the effects of brassicas, brassica extracts and isolated compounds contained therein on seed germination, seedling emergence and establishment, and seedling growth—effects that, combined or taken alone, could contribute to reducing the density and vigor of weed communities in the field. Field studies examining the detrimental effects of brassicas in rotation with other crops, as well as examining the effects of brassica cover crops on weed dynamics in subsequent crops, also are reviewed. Finally, we review some important agronomic considerations about the use of brassica cover crops.

Based on citizen demand, Iowa State University (ISU) established the first organic specialist faculty position at a US land grant university in 1997, as a shared appointment in the departments of horticulture and agronomy, with a 70% extension and 30% research split. By 1999, a national survey determined that ISU had reached the upper percentile of organic research, extension and educational activities at land grant universities in the US. This result was attributed to a series of successful Organic Agriculture Focus Groups in 1998, convened to help direct the new organic research and extension program at ISU. Partnerships with the Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture and the College of Agriculture facilitated the ISU sustainable agriculture extension leader and organic specialist‘s participation in an extensive focus group dialogue with a diverse group of farmers (organic and conventional), agribusiness professionals, bankers and consumers in six agricultural communities across Iowa. Focus group responses included the need for organic research at the university level, since the majority of organic farmers (65%) were receiving their information from other organic farmers and non-governmental publications. Paramount in the needs assessment was the establishment of organic research sites across the state to demonstrate the economic and environmental benefits associated with organic farming practices over the long term. Specific outcomes-based extension needs were articulated, which led to the development of an annual schedule of organic workshops, field days and conferences. In 2001, in a survey of 300 farmers to assess the outcomes of the Organic Agriculture Program, all respondents (39% return rate) reported benefiting from an extension organic program. Similar to focus group results, farmers rated workshops and field days as the most likely venue for information dissemination. As a result of organic farming practices, 90% of respondents reported an increase in soil quality and 67% reported a 6–30% increase in farm income. The success of land grant university organic programs will be dependent upon administrative support, sufficient resources and community involvement in the decision-making process.

A survey was conducted in 2002 to measure the success of technology transfered to growers (i.e., changes in attitudes and behaviors) from a long-term, large-scale, integrated cropping systems experiment called the Ralston Project, near Ralston, Washington, USA. Non-irrigated, cereal and oilseed growers who participated in biennial field tours (1996–2000) were mailed a self-administered questionnaire, which asked about: (1) their interest, use and adoption of technology developed or demonstrated in the project; (2) their opinions about the project's collaborators, planning and design; and (3) their overall impressions of the project. One hundred and one eligible growers responded to the questionnaire, for a 55% overall response rate and a 62% completion rate. Survey results confirmed that the Ralston Project field tours were a successful means of technology transfer among participants. Seventy-seven percent of growers found one or more project technologies particularly useful to their own production operation(s). More than 60% conducted independent trials with one or more technologies, with 50% of these trials resulting in permanent adoptions. The project's planning and design had a more positive effect on growers' opinion of the project than the type of collaborations and sources of funding. Specific strategies that had a substantially positive effect on growers' opinions included: (1) the project's ‘whole system’ treatment design; (2) use of large plots to accommodate field-sized equipment; and (3) collaboration among scientific disciplines and with local growers. Seven variables known to influence the adoption of innovation were also tested against growers' decisions to try any of the project's technology in their own farm operations. Personal character variables influenced individuals' decisions to try project technology more so than environmental conditions. Level of education, previous adoption behavior and average annual rainfall significantly influenced growers' behavior (P<0.05). Our survey population consisted of early users of conservation-based farming technology, primarily innovators and early adopters. The Ralston Project made the greatest impact on current adopters and users of conservation-based farming technology. Interest among non-users was also high enough to suggest that the Ralston Project contributed positively to the diffusion of conservation cropping systems and associated technology into the greater grower community. We discovered from this survey that the planning and execution of field research plays a significant and influential role in transferring more complex, and perhaps high-risk, conservation-based farm technology. By understanding how research and field design affect different user groups within the grower community, professionals can identify appropriate strategies to expand interest beyond their primary target audience and influence attitudes and behaviors that facilitate widespread adoption.

With the extensive focus on lean conformation in the finished hog over the past 25 years, there is some indication that pork quality has suffered and taste has been bred out of today's pork. Similar to the Certified Angus Beef program (a breed noted for intramuscular fat), small-scale farmers can promote a different ‘upscale’ pork by using breeds that will focus on pork taste exclusively, and feeding diets (possibly apart from corn and soybeans) to enhance flavor. Two experiments were devised to examine the influence of breed, rearing environment and diet on fresh pork quality and flavor. In Trial 1, three sow breed groups (Tamworth, Tamworth×Landrace, or Hampshire×Landrace) were mated to Duroc boars. Littermates (91 pigs total) were assigned randomly at weaning to one of three treatments: (1) confinement, (2) dry-lot and (3) pasture. All pigs were full fed a 16% crude protein (CP) grow-finish ration. Pasture pigs were allowed access to plots consisting of predominately white and crimson clovers with warm-season grasses (Bermuda grass and crab grass). Hampshire crosses had higher Minolta L* scores, indicating a paler, less desirable loin. Pork quality was similar across rearing environments except for lower initial pH levels observed in the pasture system and higher drip-loss percentage recorded in both outdoor systems. In Trial 2, 42 Tamworth×Duroc littermates were randomly assigned to one of two rearing environments (confinement or pasture) at 55 kg and full fed a 14% CP diet. Pigs finishing on pasture had access to standing, mature barley. Pork from the pasture system was darker than that from pigs reared in confinement. No differences were observed in sensory evaluation of the pork for the rearing environments examined. For both trials, intramuscular fat levels (<2%) and visual color scores were too low to be considered for ‘upscale’ markets. Alternative diets to produce niche-market pork are unlikely to influence flavor without adequate levels of marbling.

In a world of limited resources and inexorable pressure to produce food for burgeoning populations, innovative approaches are needed to exploit these resources in a sustainable manner. Phosphorous (P) fertilizers are used extensively throughout the world for commercial crop production, and are a major factor in global food security. Yet, in developing countries, limited or no P fertilizer is used, often because of cost and infrastructure constraints, and this is therefore an impediment to sustainable production. The challenge facing soil scientists involved with soil and fertilizer P research is to produce adequate crops on inadequately fertilized soils in poorer countries and, at the same time, improve the efficiency of P use where excessive amounts are used, thus avoiding negative environmental impacts. Soil–plant fungi, especially arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM), may have a role in solving both horns of the P-use dilemma, since such associations have been shown to vary with plant species, and indeed genotypes within species, and to enhance crop utilization and uptake of P from soils low in soluble or available P. Therefore, as corn is an important feed and food crop in the Mediterranean coastal area of Turkey, we conducted two greenhouse studies to assess the P efficiency of a range of widely grown local corn genotypes and to establish the possible role of mycorrhizae in determining differences in observed P efficiency. The nine genotypes were grown with low to high P fertilizer rates (25–200 mg kg–1) and assessed for P efficiency, based on visual observations, dry matter yield, and tissue P concentration. Two efficient and two inefficient genotypes were then grown with and without P fertilizer and added mycorrhizae. The experimental bulk soil had natural mycorrhizal colonization. The genotypes XL 72AA, DK 626 and LG 60, LG 2777 responded differently to both P and mycorrhizal infection. The efficient genotypes were more dependent on added P (twofold yield increase) and mycorrhizae than the inefficient ones. Thus, while mycorrhizal colonization is not a substitute for fertilizer use, it is complementary to it. While difficulties still remain for AM inoculation of crops in the field, more attention to mycorrhizae should be given by plant breeders in the process of crop improvement.

Strategies for pesticide use reduction have suffered from limited adoption. The impact of such strategies will be greater if they appeal to farmers with typical demographics and attitudes. A participatory, on-farm study was conducted to assess the potential of Pesticide Free ProductionTM (PFP) [Pesticide Free ProductionTM and PFPTM are registered trademarks of the University of Manitoba.] to be widely implemented on mainstream farms in Manitoba, Canada. PFP is a flexible, simple framework intended to appeal broadly to farmers who may not have adopted other pesticide use reduction initiatives. It may also provide a marketable food product label. This novel crop production system prohibits the use of in-crop pesticides and seed treatments during one crop year, as well as prior use of residual pesticides. Applications of nonresidual pesticides (such as glyphosate) are permitted prior to crop emergence. Synthetic fertilizer use is permitted at any time. The objectives of this study were: (1) to determine if the demographic and attitudinal characteristics of farms and farmers participating in a PFP pilot project varied depending on the level of PFP implementation; and (2) to compare the characteristics of farms and farmers participating in the pilot project with standards representing average farms and farmers in Manitoba. A total of 71 farmers, representing 120 fields and 11 crops, participated in the study. Fields and farmers were categorized into three groups, based on whether or not fields: (1) achieved PFP certification status and (2) were in transition to organic production. There were few demographic differences among groups. Demographic characteristics of participating farmers were typical for Manitoba, with the exception that participating farmers who were not in transition to organic production had higher levels of education than a random sample of Manitoba farmers. Attitudinal orientation (adherence to a conventional versus an alternative agricultural paradigm) of participants who were not in transition to organic production was similar to that of a random sample of Manitoba farmers. Fields and farms on which PFP was implemented were relatively large in the context of Manitoba averages. Participants indicated high satisfaction with certifiable PFP crops and high levels of interest in implementing future PFP. Pesticide free production demonstrates significant potential for broad adoption in this region.

One increasingly successful approach to enhancing small farm viability is for farmers to market their products directly to consumers and food-oriented businesses and institutions within their local area. This localized approach to food production and distribution is based on theoretical concepts often articulated as community, local or regional food systems. But is there sufficient consumer support to make local food systems viable? Do communities differ in their potential for developing a local food system based on their dominant socio-economic and/or political characteristics? This study reports on the results of a random mail survey of households in two Oregon communities. Although the two communities contrast socio-economically and politically, they show common but somewhat different support for local agriculture. The results demonstrate the potential for the development of more localized food systems in both communities. However, the type of products, their method of delivery and pricing will likely need to be tailored to fit each community.

Alternative crops, with appropriate markets and infrastructure, provide farmers the potential for diversification to offset financial stress caused by an overabundant supply of a limited number of species grown over a broad area. The objective of this work was to develop a model that would identify where soil and climate conditions are likely to be suitable for a large number of crops over a large geographic region. The model was used to screen 414 crops for suitability to Illinois conditions. The 414 crops were a subset of 968 candidate crops, for which crop soil (texture, pH, drainage) and climate (temperature, precipitation, growing season length, minimum winter temperature) requirements were identified from a literature search. The simple model was linked to geographic information system software to evaluate the suitability of the soil and climate conditions of Illinois. Two of the 414 crops were classified as highly suitable in more than 50% of the state's land area, 18 suitable in more than 90% of the state, and a total of 83 crops were rated as suitable to highly suitable in more than 90% of the state. Comparison of the suitability maps to known ranges of existing crops, and limited evaluation of 15 crops classified as suitable, moderately suitable and unsuitable for Urbana, Illinois conditions in a demonstration plot, showed this model's utility to a limited area, and suggests that the model can be applied to any region where geographically referenced soil and climate data either exist or can be developed.

Changing from a conventional livestock production system, based on fertilized grass swards, to an organic management system requires the establishment of legume-based swards to replace the purchased fertilizer nitrogen. This paper reviews experimental-based research on both the comparative economics of legume-based systems and grass swards and also the economic advantage that forage legumes confer on organic systems. A methodology to determine the production costs and economic values of a variety of forage legume systems is outlined. The resultant methodology is then applied to experimental results from trials, conducted at a wide range of sites in northern Europe, to determine the comparative profitability of different legume-based systems of silage production under conventional management. The results indicate that potentially red clover (Trifolium pratense L.), and to a lesser extent white clover (Trifolium repens L.), and lucerne (alfalfa) (Medicago sativa L.), can produce higher profits per hectare than grass-based systems using high levels of nitrogen fertilizer. Galega (Galega orientalis Lam) and lotus (Lotus corniculatus L.) can, in certain circumstances, be economically competitive with fertilized grass swards, but would generally not be the forage legumes of first choice. From an economic standpoint, forage legumes are probably best grown in a mixture with grass. As some of the experimental sites involved organic treatments, the analysis has been extended to include an assessment of the comparative economics of organic systems of production based on forage legumes, relative to conventional grass-based systems. Thus, the third part of the paper is concerned with quantifying the economic advantage to organic systems conferred by forage legumes. The results indicate that, under careful management, their use for silage can produce higher profits per hectare for organic dairy systems than those obtained from conventional grass-based systems. While the relative performance of organic systems is strongly influenced by the price premium paid for organic milk, which has declined in recent years, not all the projected economic advantage of legume-based organic dairy systems is eroded by this trend. However, economic advantage is not enough to secure the widespread adoption of forage legumes. This will depend on technological developments and management practices which reduce the risks associated with both more difficult crop establishment and higher nitrate leaching of forage legumes as compared to grass swards.

In a series of focus groups during 2001 and 2002, organic farmers from different regions of the United States identified a wide range of risks to their operations. The focus groups were facilitated by the University of Maryland in cooperation with a research team from USDA's Economic Research Service, to explore the risks faced by organic farmers, how they are managed, and needs for risk management assistance. Contamination of organic production from genetically modified organisms was seen as a major risk, particularly by grain, soybean and cotton farmers. Focus-group participants producing grains and cotton—many of whom knew about and had obtained crop insurance—raised concerns about coverage offered, including the need for insurance to reflect the higher prices received for organic crops. Most fruit and vegetable producers participating in the focus groups had little knowledge of crop insurance. When provided with basic information about crop insurance, operators of small fruit and vegetable farms were skeptical about its usefulness for their type of operation.

Many investigators have surmised that reduced-chemical and organic crop production require the input of a higher level of human capital than does conventional production. But no previous study has measured and compared whether the amounts of human capital growers use in managing their production systems differ across those systems. To provide the first measure of the time investment made in human capital by conventional and reduced-chemical farmers, we conducted a survey of 1000 Illinois households to obtain estimates of the amount of time spent by these different types of farmers to accumulate the human capital needed in their management practices. Conventional farmers reported spending just over 3 h week–1 ’keeping up‘ with information about their production practices, while reduced-chemical and organic farmers reported a time investment of nearly 4 h week–1. This difference was found to be statistically significant, suggesting that chemical inputs and human capital may be economic substitutes. Farmers who adopted reduced-chemical practices reported a transition period of 1–2 years; during this period, they spent around 3 h week–1 learning about reduced-chemical technology. Adopters of organic practices also reported a transition period of 1–2 years; during this period, they invested 5 h week–1 learning about organic technology. The quantitative results of this study will be useful for future empirical work that investigates the potential costs and benefits of using subsidies to induce conventional farmers to switch to alternative production practices.

Organic crop production systems are increasingly being adopted by producers in the northern Great Plains. This study evaluated the expected net returns and risk of organic crop rotations, compared to conventional rotations. Field plot data of organic and conventional crop rotations were used to determine the net returns of the systems, using four different levels of premiums for organic produce. The risk of returns was evaluated using estimated cumulative density functions and stochastic dominance. The most profitable organic rotation required high price premiums to dominate the most profitable conventional rotation. However, the most profitable organic rotation dominated some conventional rotations that are commonly used in the northern Great Plains. The organic rotations had slightly higher risk, but the relative risk of rotations had little impact on the optimal rotation.

Since keeping nutrient cycles intact is one of the most important goals in organic farming, the option of recycling by-products from organic food processing by feeding them to organically raised pigs was analyzed in this study. A more specific objective was to estimate the potential of this nutrient source for reducing the protein deficiency in organic pig nutrition. Sector-specific questionnaires were sent to 321 processors of organic foods in Austria. The information provided was used to estimate the total quantity of the respective by-products available. Proximate analysis, amino acid and mineral analysis were performed for different by-products. These data were combined with the available quantities of the respective by-products, resulting in the amounts of nutrients potentially recyclable for pig nutrition. Each year 2400 t of wheat bran, 990 t of rye bran and 1300 t of residues from the separation of seed grains are already fed to different kinds of livestock. Some 510 t of stale bread are currently disposed of, but could be used as a highly nutritive feedstuff for pigs, once the problem of collection is solved. Relevant amounts of other energy-rich by-products were found: currently, about 11,000 t (2000 t on a dry matter basis) of feed-grade potatoes are composted, resulting in a waste of 27,000 GJ of metabolizable energy (ME). These potatoes could be better utilized as a dietary energy source for approximately 12,300 pigs. Additionally, about 12,900 t of whey from organically produced milk are discarded, which could be used to feed roughly 14,000 pigs. High-protein by-products are scarce. Annually, 80 t and 63 t of expellers from pumpkin seed and sunflower seed, respectively, are produced from organically grown oilseeds. Only small quantities of okara (by-product of the production of tofu from soybeans) and buttermilk are available. Only 4% and 5% of the protein and lysine requirements, respectively, of the pigs currently kept on organic farms in Austria could be covered by by-products rich in protein. Excluding feed-grade potatoes means a loss of 18% crude protein (CP), 18% lysine and 26% ME of the entire nutrient supply available from organic by-products.

Crop production in the Northern Great Plains is rapidly changing because of no-till practices; producers now grow a diversity of crops with winter wheat to increase production as well as to manage weeds. With the multitude of crops available, producers are asking for guidelines to sequence crops in rotations that help weed management. We developed a planning tool that lists various choices with crops when designing a rotation; the choices are arranged by impact on weed dynamics as quantified by research in the region. The tool includes choices among crops, such as varying crops with different life cycles, planting dates, or row spacing, and choices within an individual crop, such as varying cultivar or planting date. Choices among crops impact weeds the most, whereas choices within an individual crop are less effective and usually lead to lower crop yield. For example, rotations comprised of two cool-season crops followed by two warm-season crops can reduce weed populations six- to 12-fold. In contrast, replacing a standard-height cultivar with a taller cultivar that is more competitive with weeds, is often inconsistent for weed management, whereas crop yield may be less. Producers associated with the Northern Plains Sustainable Agricultural Society felt that the planning tool would encourage long-range planning as well as help integrate weed management with the design of cropping systems. The purpose of the tool is to encourage ecologically based weed management, which can reduce herbicide inputs by 50% for Northern Great Plains producers.

This study assesses producer perceptions of traceability issues in organic agriculture, using survey data from the 2001 National Agricultural, Food and Public Policy Preference Survey. The survey provides food policy and socio-economic data that facilitate the examination of traceability issues in organic agriculture. The logistic regression models that are used to examine the relationship between traceability and organic agriculture are robust across models. The models indicate a decreased likelihood for federal government intervention on the part of organic producers for policies that improve traceability from consumer back to producer to improve food safety and tracking. However, the results suggest that organic producers with sales under $US 50,000 are more likely to indicate some willingness for government intervention. The analysis also shows that producers want food products made with biotechnology to be labeled if there is a scientifically determined difference in the product. While education may be an avenue to facilitate greater acceptance of traceability issues, the results indicate a negative relationship between the acceptance of traceability and farmers with a bachelor‘s degree. This finding is surprising given the on-going debate surrounding biotech foods and traceability. Clearly the reluctance on the part of producers with bachelor‘s degrees to embrace tracing could hinder such efforts if those producers assume leadership positions in their communities. Perhaps such results are a reflection of the confidence that those producers have in the quality of organic produce.

Agricultural industrialization, Green Revolution technologies, environmental change and civil conflicts have all been cited as contributing to the erosion of crop biodiversity. An additional factor is change in the characteristics of markets, including distance to market. Proponents of sustainable agriculture claim that one benefit of local food systems is the preservation of crop biodiversity. This paper explores that claim, examining Ohio orchardists' understanding and valuation of apple varieties and relating these to the preservation of biodiversity. Growers provided lists of apple varieties and then performed pilesorts on them. Analysis using multidimensional scaling reveals the underlying dimensions growers use to distinguish those cultivars. Salient characteristics are taste, use and market focus. Demands of the conventional commercial market with regards to transportation, appearance and storage exclude the old varieties. On the other hand, there is a strong congruence between sales in local markets and production of old varieties. Local markets, such as roadside stands and ‘pick-your-own’ operations, play an important role in the preservation of heirloom varieties of apples.