A series of experiments were conducted from 1983 through 1986 to determine the efficacy of encapsulated starch formulations of trifluralin [2,6-dinitro-N,N-dipropyl-4-(trifluoromethyl)benzenamine] in conventional and no-till soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] production. The encapsulated starch formulations remaining on the soil surface were significantly more effective than the emulsifiable concentrate when applied in February, March, or April. Encapsulated trifluralin products prepared by both the starch xanthate and starch borate processes were as effective as the emulsifiable concentrate even when used in conventional-tillage systems for weed control and for maintaining soybean yields. Our data indicate that an effective and economical herbicide such as trifluralin need not be lost in no-till soybean production if new controlled-release formulation technology is used by the agricultural industry.

Cucumber [Cucumis sativus L. ‘Calypso′] susceptibility to the ethyl ester of quizalofop {2-[4-[(6-chloro-2-quinoxyalinyl)oxy] phenoxy] propanoic acid} was investigated under field and greenhouse conditions. Cucumber yield was significantly reduced under field conditions with a single or repeated application of quizalofop at 0.14 or 0.28 kg ai/ha. Under greenhouse conditions, quizalofop significantly suppressed cucumber plant fresh weight with or without the presence of an adjuvant. Enhancement of herbicide activity was related to the concentration of adjuvant. At a higher rate of quizalofop, addition of the lower concentration of an adjuvant increased the herbicidal effect (growth suppression and visually estimated phytotoxicity). At a lower concentration, increasing adjuvant concentration enhanced visually estimated phytotoxicity.

Picloram (4-amino-3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinecarboxylic acid) and metsulfuron {2-[[[[(4-methoxy-6-methyl-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)amino] carbonyl] amino] sulfonyl] benzoic acid} were applied to broom snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae [Pursh.] Britt. and Rusby # GUESA) on two spring dates and three fall dates from October 1983 to 1985. Applications of picloram and metsulfuron in the fall more effectively controlled broom snakeweed than applications in the spring. Lower herbicide rates were necessary for 90% or greater control on a sandy loam than on a silty clay loam. Grass yield increased significantly the first, second, and third growing seasons when a majority of the broom snakeweed were killed by either herbicide, but was not different from untreated rangeland when less than 50% of the plants were killed. Reduction in broom snakeweed densities of 90% or greater following applications of picloram or metsulfuron resulted in 3- to 5-fold increases in the estimated carrying capacity of rangeland in east-central New Mexico.

A field experiment was conducted to evaluate weed control systems in a conservation tillage rotation of grain sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench.] – cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) – wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Herbicide systems included fall and spring/summer inputs of high and low intensity. Tillage regimes were no-till (NT) and reduced-till (RT) systems; the latter included fall primary tillage followed by spring stale seedbed planting. Both tillage systems utilized controlled traffic lanes and wide, raised beds. Effective johnsongrass [Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. # SORHA] control required intense herbicide inputs at one or both application periods, i.e., in the fall and/or spring/summer. Grain sorghum and cotton yields for the most intense weed control system, which included high inputs in both the fall and spring/summer, were not superior to systems that included high inputs in only one of the two application periods. Seedling johnsongrass emergence occurred before spring planting in RT (but not in NT) in 2 of 3 yr, and control measures were ineffective. After 3 yr, the predominant weeds were johnsongrass and browntop panicum (Panicum fasciculatum Sw. # PANFA).

Weed control in reduced-tillage corn (Zea mays L. ‘Pioneer 3732′) with butylate [S-ethyl bis(2-methylpropyl) carbamothioate] and EPTC (S-ethyl dipropyl carbarnothioate) was not reduced when these herbicides were applied jointly with dry or liquid fertilizer. In most cases, application with fertilizer resulted in weed control similar to that observed when the herbicide was applied in water at 285 L/ha. Butylate applied as a granular formulation also gave weed control similar to the spray at 285 L/ha. Application in 95 L/ha of water consistently resulted in reduced weed control. Corn injury was not greatly influenced by application method, and differences in corn yield appeared to be due to differences in weed control. Growth chamber bioassays indicated that both butylate and EPTC dissipated more rapidly when applied in 95 L/ha of water than the other application methods, which may explain differences in weed control observed in the field.

A rainfall simulator was used to evaluate the effects of washoff on 10 foliar-applied herbicides on johnsongrass [Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. # SORHA] in greenhouse experiments during 1983 and 1984 at Stoneville, MS. Time intervals between herbicide application and rainfall ranged from 20 to 240 min. Johnsongrass topgrowth control was equivalent to rain-free treatments using DPX-Y6202 {ethyl [2-[4-(6-chloro-2-quinozalinyl)oxy] phenoxy] propionate} at 0.03 and 0.06 kg/ha at time periods of 90 and 40 min between herbicide application and rainfall, respectively, at 28 days after treatment (DAT). A period of 120 min was required for johnsongrass control equivalent to rain-free treatments using sethoxydim {2-[1-(ethoxyimino)butyl]-5-[2-(ethylthio)propyl]-3-hydroxy-2-cyclohexen-1-one} at 0.06 kg/ha, haloxyfop {2-[4-[[3-chloro-5-(trifluoromethyl)-2-pyridinyl]oxy] phenoxy] propanoic acid} at 0.03 and 0.06 kg/ha, and cloproxydim {(E,E-2-[1-[[(3-chloro-2-propenyl)oxy] imino] butyl]-5-[2-ethylthio)propyl]-3-hydroxy-2-cyclohexen-1-one} at 28 DAT. Neither glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine] and SC-0224 (trimethylsulfoniumcarboxy methylaminomethylphosphonate) at 0.45 and 0.99 kg/ha nor other selective herbicides at 0.03 and 0.06 kg/ha gave equivalent johnsongrass topgrowth control to rain-free treatments when rainfall occurred within 240 and 120 min, respectively.

Foliar applications of 14C-bentazon [3-(1-methylethyl)-(1H)-2,1,3-benzothiadiazin-4(3H)-one 2,2-dioxide] with PPA (polymeric polyhydroxy acid) at 1 or 2% (v/v) or nonoxynol (9.5 POE) [α-(p-nonylpheny1)-ω-hydroxypoly(oxyethylene)] at 1% (v/v) or mixtures of PPA and nonoxynol did not increase absorption or translocation of 14C-bentazon in soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr. ‘Lee 74′] or common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium L. # XANST). PPA alone at 1 to 2% (v/v) did not significantly affect absorption or translocation of 14C-bentazon in smooth pigweed (Amaranthus hybridus L. # AMACH), but PPA with nonoxynol significantly increased translocation out of the treated leaf. Both PPA and nonoxynol decreased absorption and movement of 14C-MSMA [monosodium salt of methylarsonic acid] out of the treated leaf of johnsongrass [Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. # SORHA]. In greenhouse research, PPA at 0.25 and 0.5% (v/v) did not increase the level of control of common cocklebur obtained following postemergence applications of bentazon at 0.24 and 0.48 kg ai/ha. Similarly, PPA at 0.25 and 0.50% (v/v) did not increase the toxicity of MSMA at 0.3 and 0.6 kg ai/ha to either johnsongrass or common cocklebur.

Weed control, yield, quality, and net return in reduced-cost and standard weed control systems were studied in “Sunbelt runner’ peanuts (Arachis hypogaea L.) planted in a twin-row pattern in 1982 to 85 at Tifton, GA, and 1982 to 84 at Headland, AL. Reduced herbicide rates and/or less expensive herbicides were used to decrease weed control costs. In years and locations where weed populations were low there were no differences in weed control, crop yield, or quality. The lowest cost treatment, which included three applications of paraquat (1,1′-dimethyl-4,4′-bipyridinium ion), caused reduced weed control at both locations in 1982 and reduced yield in 1982 and 1984. None of the systems consistently resulted in the highest weed control, crop yield, or quality. A system including reduced rates of preplant-incorporated herbicides followed by two applications of paraquat performed as well as the standard system but cost about 40% less. Due to low cost and generally high yields this system resulted in consistently high net returns. Results indicate that the potential exists for reducing herbicide inputs without sacrificing yield or quality.

The effects of weed control measures in established alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) on forage yield and quality were investigated at three sites with varying alfalfa densities and weed populations. Herbicide treatments were 0.56 and 1.12 kg/ha metribuzin [4-amino-6-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-3-(methylthio)-1,2,4-triazin-5(4H)-one] applied in fall or spring, respectively, 1.68 kg/ha pronamide [3,5-dichloro (N-1,1-dimethyl-2-propynyl)benzamide] applied in fall, and combinations of these treatments. First-harvest forage yields (weeds plus alfalfa) were either reduced or unchanged by herbicide treatments. Total forage yield was not altered by the herbicide treatments, but first-harvest and total alfalfa yield as well as first-harvest forage protein content were increased by several treatments, depending on stand density and weed pressure. Little effect was observed on in vitro digestible dry matter or acid detergent fiber content.

Five rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivars were evaluated in the greenhouse for tolerance to fenoxaprop {(±)-2-[4-[(6-chloro-2-benzoxazolyl)oxy]phenoxy]propanoic acid}. Rice was more tolerant to fenoxaprop when flooded at 7 days after spraying, based on trends in reduction of weight of seedling topgrowth. ‘Lebonnet’ was the only cultivar that responded differently when five cultivars were compared. In the field, rice yield was not adversely affected by fenoxaprop applied at 168 g ai/ha and flooded 1 to 10 days after treatment, but yield increased as the time interval between application of 336 g ai/ha and flooding increased. Yield data suggested that flooding should be delayed at least 5 days when rice is treated with the high rate. The cultivar ‘Newbonnet’ was slightly less tolerant than 'Starbonnet’ in the field.

Sprays of 2.2 kg ae/ha of 2,4-D [(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)acetic acid] and 0.5, 1.1, or 2.2 kg ae/ha of clopyralid (3,6-dichloro-2-pyridinecarboxylic acid) were applied at three Utah sites. The 2,4-D and 1.1 or 2.2 kg/ha of clopyralid effectively controlled mountain big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata Nutt. # ARTTR ssp. vaseyana). Applications of 2.2 kg/ha of 2,4-D resulted in 84% mortality of antelope bitterbrush [Purshia tridentata (Pursh.) DC] and killed 96% of the Saskatoon serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt.). Clopyralid applications of 2.2 kg/ha killed only 5% of the antelope bitterbrush and 6% of the Saskatoon serviceberry. Thus, clopyralid is an effective alternative to 2,4-D for control of mountain big sagebrush when the desirable shrubs antelope bitterbrush and/or Saskatoon serviceberry are present.

The influence of fall (late September or late October)-applied dicamba (3,6-dichloro-2-methoxybenzoic acid) on spring-planted soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] and sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) was studied at five sites in Minnesota during 1983 and 1984. At the two southern Minnesota locations, only late-October applications of dicamba at the highest rate (4.5 kg ae/ha) reduced yields of spring-planted soybean and sunflower. At the central and the two northern Minnesota locations, both late-September and late-October applications of dicamba at 1.1 kg/ha and higher caused injury and yield reductions to soybean and sunflower planted the following year. The two southern Minnesota locations had generally higher levels of precipitation, higher temperatures, higher organic matter soils, and lower pH levels compared to the central and northern Minnesota locations. These climatic and soil characteristics reduced dicamba persistence at the two southern Minnesota locations.

A continuous-flow system was designed for the culture of aquatic weeds in the laboratory and used to examine the effects of low concentrations of terbutryn [N-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-N′-ethyl-6-(methylthio)-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-diamine] and diquat cation (6,7-dihydrodipyrido [1,2-:2′,1′-c] pyrazinediium ion) on algae (epiphyton) growing on surfaces of common elodea (Elodea canadensis L. C. Rich # ELDCA). Terbutryn did not affect the density of the epiphytic algal community, although development of the diatom component was favored at the highest concentration (50 μg/L). Diquat cation stimulated the growth of the epiphyton, particularly the diatoms, at concentrations as low as 5 μg/L. Possible reasons for this response included hormesis, differential tolerance to diquat, and facultative heterotrophy.

In 1982 and 1983, CGA 82725 {2-propynyl-2-[4-[(3,5-dichloro-2-pyridinyl)oxy] phenoxy] propanoic acid}, fenoxaprop {(±)-2-[4-[(6-chloro-2-benzoxazolyl)oxy]phenoxyl]propanoic acid}, fluazifop {(±)-2-[4-[[5-trifluoromethyl)-2-pyridinyl] oxy]phenoxy] propanoic acid}, haloxyfop {2-[4-[[3-chloro-5-(trifluoromethyl)-2-pyridinyl] oxy] phenoxy] propanoic acid}, and sethoxydim {2-[1-(ethoxyimino-(butyl]-5-[2-(ethylthio)propyl]-3-hydroxy-2-cyclohexen-1-one} were evaluated as postemergence treatments for the control of rhizome johnsongrass [Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. # SORHA] in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L. ‘Acala SJ-2′). Applications of fluazifop or haloxyfop, and the higher rates of sethoxydim or CGA 82725 or fenoxaprop, controlled 90% or more johnsongrass 20 and 52 weeks after application and prevented cotton yield losses.

The controlled release of metribuzin [4-amino-6-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-3-(methylthio)-1,2,4-triazin-5(4H)-one] and alachlor [2-chloro-N-(2,6-diethylphenyl)-N-(methoxymethyl)acetamide] from pine kraft lignin was studied using 14C-labeled herbicides and 3H-labeled lignin with soil thin-layer chromatography. NB-5203-58 series and PC940 series kraft lignins adsorbed and desorbed metribuzin as soil plates were developed with water. PC671, a formulated kraft lignin control release product, did not provide controlled release with metribuzin. NB-5203-58B and PC940C were the most effective of their respective series of kraft lignins. PC940C also provided controlled release of alachlor.

Corn (Zea mays L. ‘Pioneer 3732′) showed little to no injury following the postemergence-directed application of sethoxydim {2-[1-(ethoxyimino)butyl]-5-[2-(ethylthio) propyl]-3-hydroxy-2-cyclohexen-1-one} plus crop oil concentrate (COC) at 56 g/ha plus 1.25% (v/v) at nine locations across Midwestern U.S. in 1984 and 1985. Little corn injury also occurred for the postemergence-directed application of sethoxydim plus COC at 110 g/ha plus 1.25% (v/v) at most locations in both years. Considerable variation in tolerance was seen across locations for over-the-top applications of sethoxydim at all rates tested and for the directed application at 220 g/ha. Although corn at most locations showed no yield reduction with the over-the-top application of sethoxydim plus COC at 56 g/ha plus 1.25% (v/v), a 70% yield reduction occurred in one location in one year. For an over-the-top application of sethoxydim plus COC at 110 g/ha plus 1.25% (v/v), yields ranged from 3 to 95% of the untreated check in 1984, and from 3 to 88% in 1985. Stand reductions from an over-the-top application of sethoxydim plus COC at 220 g/ha plus 1.25% (v/v) ranged from 0 to 99%. A significant negative correlation was found between yield of corn treated over the top with sethoxydim and precipitation on the day of application and in the week following application. Air temperature on the day of application was positively correlated with corn injury from over-the-top and directed sethoxydim applications, but no correlation existed between percent relative humidity and corn injury. Open pan evaporation and solar radiation before and after application were not correlated with corn injury from sethoxydim.

Control of monoecious and dioecious hydrilla [Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle # HYLLI] biotypes required a minimum 2 days of exposure to diquat (6,7-dihydrodipyrido [1,2-α:2′,1′-c] pyrazinediium ion) at a concentration of 0.25 mg/L under laboratory conditions. When treatment concentration was increased to 2.0 mg/L diquat, the minimum required contact time was reduced to 6 or 12 h depending on plant growth stage. Early growth emerging from sprouting tubers appeared to be more susceptible to diquat treatments. Herbicide uptake was linear during a 4-day exposure to 14C-diquat up to 1.0 mg/L, and the amounts of radioactivity in plant tissue varied proportionally with ambient levels of 14C-diquat in water. The lethal concentration of diquat in hydrilla tissue was estimated to be 81 μg/g plant dry weight when hydrilla was exposed to diquat at 0.25 mg/L for 2 days.

Field persistence of imazaquin {2-[4,5-dihydro-4-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)-5-oxo-1H-imidazol-2-yl]-3-quinolinecarboxylic acid} applied preemergence as high as 16 times the 0.14 kg ai/ha recommended rate was studied at two locations in Arkansas in 1984 and 1985. Rapid dissipation of these high rates occurred on the Taloka silt loam under hot, dry field conditions in 1984 when no rainfall occurred for 2 weeks after application. In 1985, when furrow irrigation was applied 7 days after application, imazaquin phytotoxicity was greater and dissipation was delayed. Imazaquin persistence and soil adsorption were greater on Sharkey silty clay than on Taloka silt loam. Following 3- and 8-cm irrigation, 84 and 78%, respectively, of the 14C-labeled imazaquin remained in the surface 5 cm, but in plots covered between rainfalls and receiving 8 cm rain, 74% leached out of this top layer. Since nonincorporated imazaquin dissipated rapidly under hot, dry field conditions, carryover into the next growing season or leaching below the plow layer would not be expected. However, in cool, wet conditions immediately after application, the weakly adsorbed imazaquin molecule was readily bioavailable and mobile in the soil profile.

Three adjuvants, ARD 54, ARD 93, and ARD 1836, were evaluated for their ability to reduce metribuzin [4-amino-6-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-3-(methylthio)-1,2,4-triazin-5(4H)-one] phytotoxicity to soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] in sandy soils. A reduction in metribuzin phytotoxicity was observed, usually without reductions in sicklepod (Cassia obtusifolia L. # CASOB) control. The addition of linseed oil to a spray suspension containing 1% ARD 1836 reduced sicklepod control slightly at one of two locations. The addition of these adjuvants and linseed oil to the spray solution had no effect on soybean yield. These adjuvants slightly reduced movement of metribuzin in thin-layer soil chromatography but had no influence on sorption in batch-equilibrium experiments.

The effectiveness and profitability of weed control with herbicides and cultivation were determined in peanuts (Arachis hypogaea L. ‘Florunner′) infested with Texas panicum (Panicum texanum Buckl. # PANTE), sicklepod (Cassia obtusifolia L. # CASOB), and pitted morningglory (Ipomoea lacunosa L. # IPOLA). Highest peanut yield (4260 kg/ha) and net returns were achieved in 2 of 3 yr with benefin [N-butyl-N-ethyl-2,6-dinitro-4-(trifluoromethyl)benzenamine] applied preplant incorporated followed by alachlor [2-chloro-N-(2,6-diethylphenyl)-N-(methoxymethyl) acetamide] and dinoseb [2-(1-methylpropyl)-4,6-dinitrophenol] plus naptalam {2-[(1-naphthalenylamino)carbonyl] benzoic acid} applied at ground cracking, with two timely cultivations. Systems utilizing herbicides alone did not provide highest net returns, peanut yield, or weed control.