There is evidence that bipolar disorder (BD) is associated with significant neurocognitive deficits and this occurs in individuals with BD type I (BD I) and with BD type II (BD II). Only a few studies have focused on cognitive impairment in BD II. The aim of this study was to describe the pattern of cognitive impairment in patients with BD II, in order to identify specific cognitive deficits that distinguish BD II from BD I patients as well as from healthy subjects.

We performed a systematic review of the literature of neuropsychological studies of BD II published between 1980 and July 2009. Fourteen articles fulfilled the inclusion criteria and were included in this review.

Main cognitive deficits found in BD II include working memory and some measures of executive functions (inhibitory control) and approximately half of the studies also detected verbal memory impairment.

There are subtle differences between the two subtypes regarding cognition. This may suggest neurobiological differences between the two subgroups which will be helpful in order to determine cognitive endophenotypes in BD subtypes.

Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT)-based guided self-help (GSH) has been suggested to be an effective intervention for mild to moderate anxiety and depression, yet the evidence seems inconclusive, with some studies reporting that GSH is effective and others finding that GSH is ineffective. GSH differs in important respects from other levels of self-help, yet the literature regarding exclusively guided self-help interventions for anxiety and depression has not been reviewed systematically.

A literature search for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) examining CBT-based GSH interventions for anxiety and depressive disorders was conducted. Multiple electronic databases were searched; several journals spanning key disciplines were hand-searched; reference lists of included review articles were scanned and relevant first authors were contacted.

Thirteen studies met the inclusion criteria. Meta-analysis indicated the effectiveness of GSH at post-treatment, although GSH was found to have limited effectiveness at follow-up or among more clinically representative samples. Studies that reported greater effectiveness of GSH tended to be of lower methodological quality and generally involved participants who were self-selected rather than recruited through clinical referrals.

Although there is support for the effectiveness of CBT-based GSH among media-recruited individuals, the finding that the reviewed RCTs had limited effectiveness within routine clinical practice demonstrates that the evidence is not conclusive. Further rigorous evidence based on clinical populations that examines longer-term outcomes is required before CBT-based GSH interventions can be deemed effective for adults accessing primary care services for treatment of anxiety and depression.

Preterm (PT) birth and low birth weight (LBW) are high-prevalence events that are associated with adverse outcomes in the longer term, with vulnerability increasing as maturity at birth decreases. Psychiatric symptomatology appears heightened in PT/LBW survivors, though there are some discordant findings from studies using questionnaire measures, particularly with respect to anxiety and depressive symptoms.

This article synthesises findings from research using clinical psychiatric diagnostic criteria in PT/LBW individuals aged 10–25 years compared with term-born peers. Key outcomes of interest were the rates of individuals receiving any psychiatric diagnosis and the number of diagnoses of anxiety or depressive disorders.

A literature search for studies reporting prevalence of ‘any diagnosis’ yielded five studies that met inclusion criteria, with a total of 565 PT/LBW and 533 control individuals. Also, five studies were found that reported rates of anxiety/depression (692 PT/LBW and 605 control individuals). The risk of these outcomes was increased for PT/LBW individuals compared with controls [any diagnosis: odds ratio (OR) 3.66, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.57–5.21; anxiety or depressive disorder: OR 2.86, 95% CI 1.73–4.73].

The studies reviewed here indicate that, in addition to monitoring and management of medical and cognitive sequelae, the psychological well-being of PT/LBW individuals should be a key part of ongoing care.

Employers such as the Armed Forces (AF) and emergency services, who predictably expose their staff to potentially traumatic events (PTEs), often provide psycho-educational briefings in an attempt to mitigate possible adverse psychological sequelae. Within the military, psycho-educational briefings are widely used, particularly following exposure to PTEs on operations. The aim of this review was to evaluate the efficacy of these interventions and make appropriate recommendations.

A search of Medline, PsycINFO and EMBASE was conducted, bibliographies of retrieved articles were searched and experts in the field were consulted.

Two surveys and seven intervention studies were identified for inclusion in the review. Only three studies were randomized controlled trials (RCTs). Overall, the review found some evidence of benefit of psycho-educational interventions but it was not consistent across studies or outcomes and effects were small. However, there was also little evidence to suggest that they caused harm. There was some evidence that the beneficial effects may be greater for those who have been exposed to a higher number of PTEs.

Given the high operational tempo currently faced by coalition forces personnel, there remains a pressing need to identify the most effective way of minimizing the impact of exposure to potentially traumatic deployment incidents. To date, few psycho-educational interventions designed to prevent deployment-related psychological ill-health have been evaluated systematically in methodologically robust studies. The review recommends that future interventions are theoretically based and evaluated in cluster RCTs that examine both process and outcome variables.

Neurocognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia (SZ), bipolar (BD) and related disorders represents a core feature of these illnesses, possibly a marker of underlying pathophysiology. Substantial overlap in domains of neuropsychological deficits has been reported among these disorders after illness onset. However, it is unclear whether deficits follow the same longitudinal pre- and post-morbid course across diagnoses. We examine evidence for neurocognitive dysfunction as a core feature of all idiopathic psychotic illnesses, and trace its evolution from pre-morbid and prodromal states through the emergence of overt psychosis and into chronic illness in patients with SZ, BD and related disorders.

Articles reporting on neuropsychological functioning in patients with SZ, BD and related disorders before and after illness onset were reviewed. Given the vast literature on these topics and the present focus on cross-diagnostic comparisons, priority was given to primary data papers that assessed cross-diagnostic samples and recent meta-analyses.

Patients with SZ exhibit dysfunction preceding the onset of illness, which becomes more pronounced in the prodrome and early years following diagnosis, then settles into a stable pattern. Patients with BD generally exhibit typical cognitive development pre-morbidly, but demonstrate deficits by first episode that are amplified with worsening symptoms and exacerbations.

Neuropsychological deficits represent a core feature of SZ and BD; however, their onset and progression differ between diagnostic groups. A lifetime perspective on the evolution of neurocognitive deficits in SZ and BD reveals distinct patterns, and may provide a useful guide to the examination of the pathophysiological processes underpinning these functions across disorders.

Identifying prodromal features that predate the onset of bipolar disorder (BD) may enable the prevention of BD and aid early intervention. This review addresses two key questions: Is there a bipolar prodrome? And, if there is, what are its characteristic features?

A comprehensive search of databases (PubMed, Medline, EMBASE and PsycINFO) supplemented by hand searches was used to identify studies of symptoms preceding the onset of BD.

Fifty-nine studies were identified, of which 14 met inclusion criteria. Symptoms can predate the onset of BD by months to years and can be categorized as attenuated forms of BD symptoms, general symptoms common to a range of mental disorders, and personality traits, particularly cyclothymia. Two studies provided sufficient data to enable sensitivity and specificity to be calculated. Specificity of several of the features was high (>90%) but sensitivity was generally low (all <60%). We propose a model based on the findings in the studies reviewed to illustrate the potential trajectory to BD and the points at which it may be possible to intervene.

Clinical features preceding the onset of BD can be identified. However, conclusions about whether there is a distinct prodrome to BD are restricted by the limitations of current evidence. The high specificity of some features suggests they may be useful in clinical practice. Large-scale longitudinal studies are needed to validate these features and characterize their specificity and sensitivity in independent samples.

There is increasing acceptance of migration as a risk factor for schizophrenia and related disorders; however, the magnitude of the risk among second-generation immigrants (SGIs) remains unclear. Generational differences in the incidence of psychotic disorders among migrants might improve our understanding of the relationship between migration, ethnicity and psychotic disorders. This meta-analysis aimed at determining the risk of psychotic disorders among SGIs in comparison with non-migrants and first-generation immigrants (FGIs).

Medline, EMBASE and PsycINFO databases were searched systematically for population-based studies on migration and psychotic disorders published between 1977 and 2008. We also contacted experts, tracked citations and screened bibliographies. All potential publications were screened by two independent reviewers in a threefold process. Studies were included in the meta-analysis if they reported incidence data, differentiated FGIs from SGIs and provided age-adjusted data. Data extraction and quality assessment were conducted for each study.

Twenty-one studies met all inclusion criteria. A meta-analysis of 61 effect sizes for FGIs and 28 for SGIs yielded mean-weighted incidence rate ratios (IRRs) of 2.3 [95% confidence interval (CI) 2.0–2.7] for FGIs and 2.1 (95% CI 1.8–2.5) for SGIs. There was no significant risk difference between generations, but there were significant differences according to ethno-racial status and host country.

The increased risk of schizophrenia and related disorders among immigrants clearly persists into the second generation, suggesting that post-migration factors play a more important role than pre-migration factors or migration per se. The observed variability suggests that the risk is mediated by the social context.

International agreement dictates that clients must be help-seeking before any assessment or intervention can be implemented by an ‘at-risk service’. Little is known about individuals who decline input. This study aimed to define the size of the unengaged population of an ‘at-risk service’, to compare this group to those who did engage in terms of sociodemographic and clinical features and to assess the clinical outcomes of those who did not engage with the service.

Groups were compared using data collected routinely as part of the service's clinical protocol. Data on service use and psychopathology since referral to Outreach and Support in South London (OASIS) were collected indirectly from clients' general practitioners (GPs) and by screening electronic patient notes held by the local Mental Health Trust.

Over one-fifth (n=91, 21.2%) of those referred did not attend or engage with the service. Approximately half of this group subsequently received a diagnosis of mental illness. A diagnosis of psychosis was given to 22.6%. Nearly 70% presented to other mental health services. There were no demographic differences, except that those who engaged with the service were more likely to be employed.

Over one-fifth of those referred to services for people at high risk of psychosis do not attend or engage. However, many of this group require mental health care, and a substantial proportion has, or will later develop, psychosis. A more assertive approach to assessing individuals who are at high risk of psychosis but fail to engage may be indicated.

Major depressive disorder (MDD) and anxiety disorders (ANX) are debilitating and prevalent conditions that often co-occur in adolescence and young adulthood. The leading theoretical models of their co-morbidity include the direct causation model and the shared etiology model. The present study compared these etiological models of MDD–ANX co-morbidity in a large, prospective, non-clinical sample of adolescents tracked through age 30.

Logistic regression was used to examine cross-sectional associations between ANX and MDD at Time 1 (T1). In prospective analyses, Cox proportional hazards models were used to examine T1 predictors of subsequent disorder onset, including risk factors specific to each disorder or common to both disorders. Prospective predictive effect of a lifetime history of one disorder (e.g. MDD) on the subsequent onset of the second disorder (e.g. ANX) was then examined. This step was repeated while controlling for common risk factors.

The findings supported relatively distinct profiles of risk between MDD and ANX depending on order of development. Whereas the shared etiology model best explained co-morbid cases in which MDD preceded ANX, direct causation was supported for co-morbid cases in which ANX preceded MDD.

Consistent with previous research, significant cross-sectional and prospective associations were found between MDD and ANX. The results of the present study suggest that different etiological models may characterize the co-morbidity between MDD and ANX based upon the temporal order of onset. Implications for classification and prevention efforts are discussed.

The nosological status of olfactory reference syndrome (ORS) is a matter of debate and there is uncertainty as to what treatments are effective.

The world literature was searched for reports of cases of ORS. Clinical, nosological and therapeutic information from cases meeting proposed diagnostic criteria for the disorder was summarized and tabulated.

A total of 84 case reports (52 male/32 female) were found. Age of onset was <20 years in almost 60% of cases. Smell-related precipitating events were recorded in 42%. Most patients could not smell the smell or only did so intermittently. Authors of the reports expressed reservations about the delusional nature of the belief in slightly under half of the cases. Over two-thirds were improved or recovered at follow-up, with the disorder responding to antidepressants and psychotherapy more frequently than to neuroleptics.

ORS is a primary psychiatric syndrome that does not fit well into its current classification as a subtype of delusional disorder, both in terms of its nosology and its response to treatment.

The DSM-5 Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Sub-Workgroup is recommending the creation of a new diagnostic category named Hoarding Disorder (HD). The validity and acceptability of the proposed diagnostic criteria have yet to be formally tested.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder/hoarding experts and random members of the American Psychiatric Association (APA) were shown eight brief clinical vignettes (four cases meeting criteria for HD, three with hoarding behaviour secondary to other mental disorders, and one with subclinical hoarding behaviour) and asked to decide the most appropriate diagnosis in each case. Participants were also asked about the perceived acceptability of the criteria and whether they supported the inclusion of HD in the main manual.

Altogether, 211 experts and 48 APA members completed the survey (30% and 10% response rates, respectively). The sensitivity and specificity of the HD diagnosis and the individual criteria were high (80–90%) across various types of professionals, irrespective of their experience with hoarding cases. About 90% of participants in both samples thought the criteria would be very/somewhat acceptable for professionals and sufferers. Most experts (70%) supported the inclusion of HD in the main manual, whereas only 50% of the APA members did.

The proposed criteria for HD have high sensitivity and specificity. The criteria are also deemed acceptable for professionals and sufferers alike. Training of professionals and the development and validation of semi-structured diagnostic instruments should improve diagnostic accuracy even further. A field trial is now needed to confirm these encouraging findings with real patients in real clinical settings.

Whether temperament and character differ between bipolar disorder (BD) and major depressive disorder (MDD) patients and general population subjects, or between BD I and BD II patients, remains unclear.

BD patients (n=191) from the Jorvi Bipolar Study and MDD patients (n=266) from the Vantaa Depression Study (VDS) and the Vantaa Primary Care Depression Study were interviewed at baseline, at 6 and 18 months, and in the VDS at 5 years. A general population comparison group (n=264) was surveyed by mail. BD patients' scores on the Temperament and Character Inventory-Revised were compared at an index interview, when levels of depression and mania were lowest, with scores of MDD patients and controls. BD I (n=99) and BD II (n=92) patients were compared.

Compared with controls, both BD and MDD patients had higher harm avoidance [odds ratio (OR) 1.027, p<0.001 and OR 1.047, p<0.001, respectively] and lower persistence (OR 0.983, p=0.006 and OR 0.968, p<0.001, respectively) scores. Moreover, BD patients had lower self-directedness (OR 0.979, p=0.003), MDD patients lower reward dependence (OR 0.976, p=0.002) and self-transcendence (OR 0.966, p<0.001) scores. BD patients scored lower in harm avoidance (OR 0.980, p=0.002) and higher in novelty seeking (OR 1.027, p<0.001) and self-transcendence (OR 1.028, p<0.001) than MDD patients. No differences existed between BD I and II patients.

The patterns of temperament and character dimensions differed less between BD and MDD patients, than patients from their controls. The most pronounced difference was higher novelty seeking in BD than MDD patients. The dimensions investigated are unlikely to differ between BD I and BD II patients.

Previous studies have shown that patients with schizophrenia are impaired on executive tasks, where positive and negative feedbacks are used to update task rules or switch attention. However, research to date using saccadic tasks has not revealed clear deficits in task switching in these patients. The present study used an oculomotor ‘rule switching’ task to investigate the use of negative feedback when switching between task rules in people with schizophrenia.

A total of 50 patients with first episode schizophrenia and 25 healthy controls performed a task in which the association between a centrally presented visual cue and the direction of a saccade could change from trial to trial. Rule changes were heralded by an unexpected negative feedback, indicating that the cue-response mapping had reversed.

Schizophrenia patients were found to make increased errors following a rule switch, but these were almost entirely the result of executing saccades away from the location at which the negative feedback had been presented on the preceding trial. This impairment in negative feedback processing was independent of IQ.

The results not only confirm the existence of a basic deficit in stimulus–response rule switching in schizophrenia, but also suggest that this arises from aberrant processing of response outcomes, resulting in a failure to appropriately update rules. The findings are discussed in the context of neurological and pharmacological abnormalities in the conditions that may disrupt prediction error signalling in schizophrenia.

Depression has been associated with limbic hyperactivation and frontal hypoactivation in response to negative facial stimuli. Anxiety disorders have also been associated with increased activation of emotional structures such as the amygdala and insula. This study examined to what extent activation of brain regions involved in perception of emotional faces is specific to depression and anxiety disorders in a large community-based sample of out-patients.

An event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) paradigm was used including angry, fearful, sad, happy and neutral facial expressions. One hundred and eighty-two out-patients (59 depressed, 57 anxiety and 66 co-morbid depression-anxiety) and 56 healthy controls selected from the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety (NESDA) were included in the present study. Whole-brain analyses were conducted. The temporal profile of amygdala activation was also investigated.

Facial expressions activated the amygdala and fusiform gyrus in depressed patients with or without anxiety and in healthy controls, relative to scrambled faces, but this was less evident in patients with anxiety disorders. The response shape of the amygdala did not differ between groups. Depressed patients showed dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) hyperactivation in response to happy faces compared to healthy controls.

We suggest that stronger frontal activation to happy faces in depressed patients may reflect increased demands on effortful emotion regulation processes triggered by mood-incongruent stimuli. The lack of strong differences in neural activation to negative emotional faces, relative to healthy controls, may be characteristic of the mild-to-moderate severity of illness in this sample and may be indicative of a certain cognitive-emotional processing reserve.

Experimental studies have indicated that social contact, even when it is neutral, triggers paranoid thinking in people who score high on clinical or subclinical paranoia. We investigated whether contextual variables are predictive of momentary increases in the intensity of paranoid thinking in a sample of participants ranging across a psychometric paranoia continuum.

The sample (n=154) consisted of 30 currently paranoid patients, 34 currently non-paranoid patients, 15 remitted psychotic patients, 38 high-schizotypy participants, and 37 control subjects. Based on their total score on Fenigstein's Paranoia Scale (PS), three groups with different degrees of paranoia were defined. The Experience Sampling Method (ESM), a structured diary technique, was used to assess momentary social context, perceived social threat and paranoia in daily life.

There were differences in the effect of social company on momentary levels of paranoia and perceived social threat across the range of trait paranoia. The low and medium paranoia groups reported higher levels of perceived social threat when they were with less-familiar compared to familiar individuals. The medium paranoia group reported more paranoia in less-familiar company. The high paranoia group reported no difference in the perception of social threat or momentary paranoia between familiar and unfamiliar contacts.

Paranoid thinking is context dependent in individuals with medium or at-risk levels of trait paranoia. Perceived social threat seems to be context dependent in the low paranoia group. However, at high levels of trait paranoia, momentary paranoia and momentary perceived social threat become autonomous and independent of social reality.