Kokum [Garcinia indica (Thouars) Choisy] is a multi-purpose tree with culinary, cosmetics and pharmaceutical uses found popular in Konkan region of India. ICAR-NBPGR Regional Station, Thrissur made a systematic exploration and collection missions on kokum over a period from 1987–2004 and collected 31 accessions from various parts of Konkan region to characterize them using morphological characters and also to investigate their flowering and fruiting behaviour. Totally, 85 trees planted in Field Gene Bank in which only 67 trees (23 accessions) survived during field establishment. Among them, 32 (47.8%) were male and remaining 25 identified as female (37.3%) and 10 as co-sexual (14.9%). Fruit bearing ability noticed only in both female and co-sexual trees with huge variation in fruits. Morphological characterization of 33 trees with fruiting (23 accessions) for 35 morphological traits revealed presence of considerable amount of variation among them on basis of CV%. Highest positive correlation observed between fresh seed weight and fresh kernel weight (0.92). Cluster analysis formed four major clusters with Cluster I and II comprising male/bisexual genotypes and Cluster III and IV with female genotypes and it clearly distinguished male/bisexual genotypes from female ones. PCA analysis accounted 65.6% of genetic variation present among accessions by first three most informative PCs. Superior accessions identified for important traits will be more useful in industrial aspects of preparing kokum butter and juice. Further, seasonal difference identified in fruiting and maturity of fruits well-before onset of monsoon may be exploited by kokum industries for drying and processing of fruits.

Rattus species pose a significant threat to the Philippines, causing substantial economic losses in agriculture and posing health risks to humans. While Ecologically Based Rodent Management (EBRM) has been developed to mitigate rodent outbreaks, its implementation is challenging, particularly in the face of climate and land use changes. In this study, we aimed to potentially enhance EBRM strategies by utilizing a high-performing modelling approach, MaxEnt, to predict the habitat suitability for Rattus species in the Philippines. This study revealed that forested areas exhibit high suitability for R. tanezumi, R. exulans, and R. everetti, with a notable degree of similarities in their habitat suitability. Furthermore, the model predicted that R. argentiventer, a species with no records in the mainland of Luzon, could potentially find suitable habitats in some areas of these regions, particularly in Central Luzon. Conversely, R. norvegicus was predicted to be highly suitable for areas with high-human population density, such as urban cities. The predictive model deepens our understanding of the interactions between Rattus species and their environments across the Philippines, which is crucial for identifying high-risk areas that require immediate intervention. These results have the potential to enhance the EBRM approach more effectively on a national scale. The EBRM strategy based on the predictive outcomes of the MaxEnt model is not only crucial for the Philippines but also serve as a guiding framework for other regions facing similar challenges with rodent populations.

Antioquia Brushfinch Atlapetes blancae is a recently rediscovered Colombian microendemic species with a restricted distribution. Although the species might use a variety of habitats, current information suggests that it is a shrubland specialist. It is categorised as “Critically Endangered” because due to habitat loss its population has been estimated to be smaller than 50 individuals. Such estimates are based on indirect measurements of its population and assumptions regarding its restricted range/habitat. We provide the first direct population estimates and adult sex ratio for seven localities, using mark-resighting techniques. Individuals were captured using mist-nets, bled, and colour banded. Subsequently, we performed censuses along transects to record banded and non-banded individuals. Population estimates were obtained using the classic closed population mark-resighting model. In addition, we used the abundance–area relationship to estimate population size at other sites where the species has been previously recorded. Finally, individuals were sexed by amplifying the Z and W-linked Chromo-Helicase DNA-binding gene (CHD) genes. In total, we banded 55 individuals at four locations. Summarising across the seven sampled localities, we found that the population is most likely composed of 109 individuals in the 122 ha sampled. Based on the abundance–area relationship, we estimated that the population of Antioquia Brushfinch could be as large as 405 individuals in 322 ha of suitable habitat. We found that male/female sex ratio was 0.45 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.32–0.6) and that it was not significantly biased. Our results suggest that the population of Antioquia Brushfinch is at least eight times larger than suggested by secondary information. We found that populations are properly structured at least regarding sex ratio, although we caution for further research on sex biases of immature and juvenile individuals. We recommend that future studies should focus on population trends and the impact of habitat transformation on the demography of this iconic species.

The fauna of the Apennine Peninsula is, in comparison to other southern European peninsulas, relatively species-poor regarding the number of endemic cyprinoid species. Nonetheless, the recent introduction of non-native species has significantly increased the total number of freshwater species in this region. Such invasive species may represent a threat to the native fauna, associated among other things with the introduction of non-native parasites with their original hosts.

In the present study, we investigated endemic cyprinoid species for the presence of helminth parasites. A total of 36 ectoparasitic monogenean species and five endoparasitic helminth species were collected from ten cyprinoid species in five localities in northern Italy. Out of 20 Dactylogyrus species (gill monogeneans specific to cyprinoids), four were identified as new to science and herein described: Dactylogyrus opertus n. sp. and Dactylogyrus sagittarius n. sp. from Telestes muticellus, Dactylogyrus conchatus n. sp. from T. muticellus and Protochondrostoma genei, and Dactylogyrus globulatus n. sp. from Chondrostoma soetta. All new Dactylogyrus species appear to be endemic to the Apennine Peninsula; however, they share a common evolutionary history with the endemic Dactylogyrus parasitizing cyprinoids of the Balkans. This common origin of cyprinoid-specific parasites supports a historical connection between these two (currently separated) geographical regions.

The little studied Mount Cameroon Francolin Pternistis camerunensis is endangered and strictly endemic to the undergrowth of Mount Cameroon’s primary forest. We surveyed the species in the Mount Cameroon National Park in July–August 2016 using call playback at 86 plots systematically placed along 17 transects in an attempt to assess the occupancy and conservation threats to the species. The study’s three main results are as follows. Firstly, Mount Cameroon Francolin occurred in the stratified vegetation types across the altitudinal range of 1,023–2,186 m. Secondly, the response rates of francolin were 15% in submontane forest (800–1,600 m altitude range); 80.8% in montane forest (1,600–1,800 m); 3.9% in montane scrub (1,800–2,400 m); and nil in the lowland forest (0–800 m). Thirdly, bird abundance significantly increased with latitude, ground vegetation height, presence of Prunus africana and tall grass cover but decreased with the density of small trees and disturbance caused by heavy Prunus exploitation, and also, based on indirect evidence, hunting. We recommend: (1) systematic use of call playback in monitoring the population status of francolins; (2) an increase in patrolling and law enforcement to control illegal hunting, land clearance and burning of the upper slopes; (3) promotion of sustainable harvesting of Prunus and agroforestry practices aimed at curbing land clearance in the park surroundings. Further research priorities and conservation strategies have been suggested based on this study’s emerging results.

The influence of temperature and water availability on seed germination can vary across the geographic range of species with a large distribution. Betula pendula is a widely spread European tree that has differentiated into two narrowly distributed taxa, endemic to Mediterranean mountains: Betula aetnensis in Sicily and B. fontqueri in Spain and Morocco. We tested the hypothesis that the regeneration niche, expressed by temperature and water potential thresholds, varies across these species and is influenced by the local climate. Seeds were collected from six populations of B. pendula, one of B. fontqueri and two of B. aetnensis. Germination tests were conducted between 5 and 30°C. The thermal thresholds were calculated before and after cold stratification. The osmotic potential tested ranged from 0 to −1.5 MPa. Time to reach 30 and 50% of germination was calculated by fitting non-linear models. Germination was promoted by high temperatures, but the response to stratification was heterogeneous. Tb and Ψb differed between and within species. Tb ranged between 2.22 and 8.94°C for unstratified seeds. Mediterranean species had higher drought tolerance, while B. pendula showed contrasting responses to low water potential. Ψb reached a minimum value of −1.15 MPa in B. fontqueri. High temperatures influenced the Tb of unstratified seeds negatively, while, after stratification, the Tb increased with precipitation in the driest month. The heterogeneity observed could reflect higher genetic variability in marginal populations of silver birch. Knowledge of their germination ecology may be useful to mitigate future impacts of climate change on core populations of B. pendula.

Information about seed dormancy cycling and germination in relation to temperature and moisture conditions in the natural environment is important for the conservation and restoration of rare species, including Begonia guishanensis and Paraisometrum mileense, two sympatric perennial limestone (karst) species. Dry afterripening (DAR) and wet and dry (WD) cycles at 15/5 and 25/15°C as well as moist chilling (MC) at 15/5°C were used to mimic the natural environment at different times of the year. A field experiment was conducted to monitor seasonal changes in germination responses of the seeds. About 40–65% of B. guishanensis and 5% of P. mileense seeds were dormant at maturity. DAR at 25/15 and 15/5°C as well as MC and WD cycles at 15/5°C alleviated dormancy for B. guishanensis but not P. mileense, and WD cycles at 25/15°C induced a deeper conditional dormancy for both species. Seeds of B. guishanensis exhibited dormancy cycling in the field, with increased dormancy under natural WD cycles at relatively high temperatures during the transition from the dry to the wet season in April to May and decreased dormancy during the wet season from June to October. KNO3 mitigated the dormancy-inducing effect of both artificial and natural WD cycles at relatively high temperatures for B. guishanensis. The field experiment indicated that seeds of B. guishanensis may be able to form a persistent soil seed bank, while almost all seeds of P. mileense germinate at the beginning of the wet season in the field.

Amphibians on African mountains are threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, pollution, disease and climate change. In particular, there have been recent reports of declines of montane endemic frogs in Cameroon. Mount Bamboutos, although home to numerous species of endemic amphibians, has no official protection and its amphibian populations have so far not been studied quantitatively. We surveyed frog assemblages on this mountain along a gradient of forest modification over a 2-year period. Through visual encounter surveys stratified across forest and farmland, we found that threatened montane amphibian species are closely associated with forested areas, particularly the Critically Endangered Leptodactylodon axillaris and Endangered Leptodactylodon perreti, Astylosternus ranoides and Cardioglossa oreas. Using the updated inventory of amphibians, which includes species with broader ranges across Africa, we found 69% of amphibian species on Mount Bamboutos to be threatened. We did not record several species present in historical records, which suggests they may have disappeared from this mountain, including Cardioglossa pulchra, Phrynobatrachus steindachneri, Phrynobatrachus werneri, Sclerophrys villiersi, Werneria bambutensis and Wolterstorffina mirei. The pattern of change detected in the amphibian community is consistent with declines on other mountains in the country, with a loss of Phrynobatrachus, Werneria and Cardioglossa spp., but persistence of Astylosternus, Arthroleptis and Leptodacty-lodon. The observed relationships of land-use patterns and amphibian diversity suggest that ongoing land-use changes could extirpate the remaining montane endemic frog species, particularly L. axillaris and L. perreti. Preserving a network of connected forest patches is therefore critical to save the endemic amphibians of Mount Bamboutos.

Although there is increasing evidence for a sixth mass extinction, relatively few plants have been officially declared extinct (<150 are categorized as Extinct on the IUCN Red List). The Red List, although the data are neither perfect nor comprehensive, is perhaps the most reliable indicator of extinction and extinction threat. Here, data collated from the Red List, of Extinct plant species and of Critically Endangered plant species with populations in decline, are examined to address three questions: (1) How do background, continental, and island plant extinction rates compare? (2) Are biological and physical island parameters associated with plant extinction? (3) Are any plant traits associated with extinction and if so do these differ between islands and continents? The background rate for plant extinction is estimated to be 0.05–0.13 E/MSY (extinctions per million species-years) and the Red List data are above these background rates and also above a higher extinction rate of 0.15 E/MSY. The data indicate that plant extinctions are dominated by insular species. The Red List extinction data are associated with lower competitive ability and lower climate change velocities, and anthropogenic factors. Analyses using only Critically Endangered species whose populations are in decline (arguably the species most at risk of extinction in the near future) largely mirrors this pattern and suggests that drivers of plant extinction may have an inertia that could last well into the future.

The genus Acanthogobius of gobiioid fish has been reported for six species from East Asia, and inhabits estuarine and coastal waters. Within this genus, Acanthogobius insularis is an endangered and endemic goby in the Amami-oshima and Okinawa-jima Islands, southern Japan, and its range is restricted to the lowermost course of a few river basins. Basic knowledge on this species is scarce in spite of its vulnerable conservation status. The purpose of this study was to elucidate the life history of A. insularis. Monthly sampling was conducted at five stations in the Taiho River, Okinawa-jima Island, from November 2014 to November 2015. Monthly standard length (SL) distributions were unimodal except in April during the recruiting period, suggesting that A. insularis is an annual species. Analysis of the gonadosomatic index and histological observations of the ovaries revealed that this species spawns from January to May. The beginning of the spawning season seems to be related to a decline in water temperature in December. Growth rates appeared to be lower from April to December and higher in winter months. From monthly collections, A. insularis was found to move upstream with growth, and gather at spawning grounds during the reproductive season. Acanthogobius insularis might be threatened by increasing water temperature due to climate change, since low water temperatures appear to be important for their reproduction and growth. Moreover, habitat diversity, from tidal flats for recruiting grounds to upstream sites with cobbles for spawning, is needed to complete their life cycle, and should be conserved.

Endemic insular species are particularly vulnerable to anthropogenic threats. The fish-eating bat Myotis vivesi is restricted mainly to the islands of the Gulf of California in Mexico and although several aspects of its biology have been studied there are no recent accounts of its current distribution. We conducted several expeditions during 2001–2016 to verify the current geographical distribution of this bat, and to record the presence of introduced predators. We identified the localities in which maternity colonies occur, estimated the size of the bat population on Partida Norte Island in 2003, and monitored bat presence on this island during 2004–2016. We found fish-eating bats on 36 islands and maternity colonies on 19 islands. Introduced rats Rattus rattus or cats Felis catus were captured on seven islands where the bats were present, and on five islands where they were absent. We estimated a population of c. 30,000 fish-eating bats in May 2003 and we confirmed the species’ presence on Partida Norte Island during 2004–2016. Based on the information compiled from our surveys and previous studies, we discuss the adequacy of the species’ current categorization as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, and its conservation status conferred by Mexican conservation authorities.

The Endangered Cuvier's gazelle Gazella cuvieri is an endemic ungulate of north-western Africa. Information on the species has been based primarily on non-systematic surveys, and the corresponding status estimates are of unknown quality. We evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of two field methods for systematic surveys of populations of Cuvier's gazelle in arid environments: distance sampling (based on sightings) and sampling indirect sign (tracks and scats). The work was carried out in the north-western Sahara Desert, in Morocco, where what is possibly the largest population of Cuvier's gazelle persists. A logistically viable survey was conducted over a total area of c. 20.000 km2 in 10 expeditions during 2011–2014. A total of 67 sites were surveyed, with 194 walking surveys (2,169 km in total). Gazelle signs were detected at 50 sites, and gazelles were sighted at 21 sites (61 individuals). We found a relationship between sightings and abundance indices based on indirect sign, which could be useful for population monitoring or ecological studies. Additionally, the data could be used in occupancy modelling. Density estimates based on distance sampling required considerable effort; however, it is possible to survey large areas during relatively short campaigns, and this proved to be the most useful approach to obtain data on the demographic structure of the population.

The loss of biodiversity in transitional forests between the Cerrado and Amazonia, the two largest neotropical phytogeographic domains, is an issue of great concern. This extensive region is located within the ‘arc of deforestation’ zone where tropical forests are being lost at the fastest rate on the planet, but floristic diversity and variation among forests here is still poorly understood. We aimed to characterize the floristic composition of forests in this zone and explored the degree and drivers of differentiation within and across Araguaia and Xingu watersheds. In 10 sites we identified all trees with diameter ≥10 cm; these totaled 4944 individuals in 257 species, 107 genera and 52 families. We evaluated the data for multivariate variation using TWINSPAN and DCA to understand the species distribution among sites. There was a larger contribution from the Amazonian flora (169 species) than that of the Cerrado (109) to the transitional forests. Remarkably, 142 species (55%) were restricted to only one sampling site, while 29 species (>16%) are endemic to Brazil, suggesting potentially large loss of species and unique forest communities with the loss and fragmentation of large areas. Our results also suggest that watersheds may be a critical factor driving species distribution among forests in the Amazonian–Cerrado transition zone, and quantifying their role can provide powerful insight into devising better conservation strategies for the remaining forests.

We review the literature on effects of inbreeding depression (ID) on seed germination for 743 case studies of 233 species in 64 families. For 216 case studies, we also review the relationship between mass and germination in inbred vs. outbred seeds. Inbred seeds germinated equally well as outbred seeds in 51.1% of 743 case studies, but better than outbred seeds in only 8.1%. In c. 50.5% of 216 cases, mass of inbred seeds was equal to (38.0%) or larger than (12.5%) that of outbred seeds. The magnitude of ID spans most of the − 1 to +1 range for relative performance for germination of inbred vs. outbred seeds; in contrast to what might be expected, seed germinability often is not negatively correlated with the coefficient of inbreeding (F) or positively corrected with population genetic diversity; neither heterosis nor outbreeding depression for germination is common in crosses between populations; and ID in most endemics is low and does not differ from that of widespread congeners. Our results on the effects of ID on seed mass and germination do not agree with the limited number of comparisons Darwin (1876) made on the effects of selfing vs. outcrossing on these two life-history traits. Recommendations are made on how to improve dormancy breaking and germination procedures in order to make the results of studies on ID more relevant to the natural world.

Urban development is an increasing threat to the integrity of formerly remote protected areas, in some cases resulting in their downgrading, downsizing or degazetting. One-quarter of previously remote protected areas are now within 17 km of a city and thus face the threat of urbanization. Here we describe a case of avoided downgrading, downsizing and degazetting of a protected area in the Mondah forest of Gabon, north of Libreville. Since its creation in 1934 the Forêt Classée de la Mondah has been downsized regularly, losing 40% of its area over 80 years. During this time the forest surrounding the Forêt Classée was subject to usage for urban and peri-urban needs, including agriculture, sand extraction, collection of medicinal plants, ceremonies, and housing construction. In 2010 the area was threatened with further downsizing. The presence of narrowly endemic plant species in the area was suspected, and mapping and evaluation of these species was proposed in an effort to maintain the protected area boundaries. Botanical field work, including ex situ conservation measures and participant observation in nearby forest communities, was conducted; 24 endemic species, all threatened by urbanization, were evaluated using the criteria for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The borders of the protected area were maintained because of its role in maintaining irreplaceable habitat for threatened species. The area was renamed Raponda Walker Arboretum in 2012.

The okapi Okapia johnstoni, a rainforest giraffid endemic to the Democratic Republic of Congo, was recategorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List in 2013. Historical records and anecdotal reports suggest that a disjunct population of okapi may have occurred south-west of the Congo River but the current distribution and status of the okapi in this region are not well known. Here we describe the use of non-invasive genetic identification for this species and assess the success of species identification from dung in the wild, which varied throughout the range. This variation is probably attributable to varying okapi population densities and/or different sample collection strategies across the okapi's distribution. Okapi were confirmed to occur south-west of the Congo River, in scattered localities west of the Lomami River. We demonstrated that non-invasive genetic methods can provide information on the distribution of cryptic, uncommon species that is difficult to obtain by other methods. Further investigation is required to genetically characterize the okapi across its range and to investigate the biogeographical processes that have led to the observed distribution of okapi and other fauna in the region.

The volcano rabbit Romerolagus diazi is an Endangered species endemic to Mexico, with a range of < 400 km2. We investigated threats from destruction, fragmentation and degradation of habitat, hunting, and cattle grazing intensity in relation to the distribution and abundance of the volcano rabbit on the Iztaccihuatl volcano. Faecal pellet counts were taken as a proxy for rabbit abundance in 1,718 random 0.2 m2 quadrats at 859 sampling points along 25 transects, covering an area of c. 100 km2 at altitudes of 3,400–4,000 m. Presence of the species was significantly associated with absence of closed forest, absence of long grass types (not bunchgrass), shallow inclines, absence of cattle grazing, lower altitude, low hunting pressure (measured by proximity to ranger station), absence of bare ground and, contrary to previous findings, increased frequency of fire. The species was significantly more abundant in habitats with a greater percentage cover of zacaton (bunchgrass) and short grass types. It was significantly less abundant in areas with more hunting (measured by proximity to ranger station) and cattle grazing. Key conservation priorities are therefore the protection of the subalpine zacaton bunchgrass-dominated habitat type, strict enforcement of hunting laws and the removal of livestock from relevant national park boundary areas. However, the results suggest that frequent fires have a significant positive effect on the occurrence of the volcano rabbit as a result of habitat improvement and this is often a consequence of anthropogenic management of land for cattle grazing.

Protected areas in developing tropical countries are under pressure from local demand for resources, and therefore it is essential to monitor rare species and prevent overexploitation of resources. The Travancore tortoise Indotestudo travancorica is endemic to the Western Ghats in southern India, where it inhabits deciduous and evergreen forests. We used multiple-season models to estimate site occupancy and detection probability for the tortoise in two protected areas, and investigated factors influencing this. During 2006–2009 we surveyed 25 trails in four forest types and estimated that the tortoise occupied 41–97% of the habitat. Tortoise presence on the trails was confirmed by sightings of 39 tortoises and 61 instances of indirect evidence of tortoises. There was considerable interannual variation in both direct and indirect evidence of tortoise presence. Although grass marshes represented only a small fraction of the protected areas, they constituted an important foraging ground for the tortoise and should be a focal point for monitoring and protection measures. Human-inhabited enclaves within the protected areas, and consequent furtive hunting, had a negative effect on occupancy by the tortoise, and therefore protected area management should include educating local communities and involving them in monitoring and protecting the species.

Wenchengia alternifolia (Lamiaceae) is a plant species endemic to Hainan Island, China. Since the 1930s it was known from only four collections and was believed to be extinct until a remnant population was rediscovered in 2010. We conducted further field surveys during 2010–2012 but located only one population, with 66 individuals. W. alternifolia is restricted to the c. 1,500 m2 Shuangximu Valley, in a harsh microenvironment surrounded by plantations. As the population comprises < 50 mature individuals, we propose that W. alternifolia be categorized as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, based on criterion D. We recommend that the remnant population and its habitat need urgent protection and monitoring and that ex situ conservation, for future reintroduction, should be implemented.

The present work aims to determine whether there are patterns of seed and germination characteristics in Vellozia due to the phylogenetic proximity among the species examined and if these characteristics explain their restricted geographical distributions. We evaluated the germination characteristics of freshly collected seeds from 13 species of the genus Vellozia (Velloziaceae) that show different degrees of endemism, collected at various locations in the Espinhaço Mountain Range in Minas Gerais State, south-eastern Brazil. The size and mass of the seeds, as well as the influence of light and temperature on their germination, were measured. Experiments were performed in germination chambers under constant temperatures of 10–40°C (intervals of 5°C), with a 12-h photoperiod, as well as in continuous darkness. All species studied had small seeds with mass varying from 0.06 to 1.21 mg. Most species required light for germination, displaying high germinability in the range of 15–40°C; some species, however, germinated in the absence of light at the highest temperatures (35 and 40°C). The sizes and masses of the seeds showed significant linear correlations, but light sensitivity was not related to these seed characteristics. The responses observed suggest that light requirement for germination, associated with the small sizes of Vellozia spp. seeds, contribute to the formation of persistent seed banks. The observed tolerance of these seeds to a wide range of germination temperatures is consistent with the large daily temperature fluctuations experienced in campos rupestres sites, although these seed characteristics cannot by themselves explain the high degree of endemism or the restricted distributions observed among the species examined.