Cover crop adoption is increasing among growers with the occurrence of herbicide-resistant weed species. A field study conducted at three sites from autumn 2021 through the crop harvest in 2022 in Alabama aimed to evaluate the combined effect of cover crop residue and herbicides for weed control and improved cotton lint yield. The experiment was conducted in split-plot design with main plots consisting of six cover crop treatments: cereal rye, crimson clover, oat, radish, cover crop mixture, and winter fallow. The subplots included four herbicide treatments: (i) preemergence, pendimethalin + fomesafen, (ii) postemergence, dicamba + glyphosate + S-metolachlor, (iii) preemergence followed by postemergence, and (iv) nontreated (NT) check. Cover crops, excluding radish, exhibited greater weed biomass reduction than winter fallow with corresponding herbicide treatments of either preemergence, postemergence, or preemergence + postemergence as compared to control (winter fallow and NT check). Considering preemergence + postemergence treatment, cereal rye, crimson clover, oat, and cover crop mixture provided >95% weed biomass reduction as compared to control. Looking at the overall effect of cover crop, cereal rye outperformed and showed greater weed biomass reduction than radish relative to control. Preemergence + postemergence herbicide treatment resulted in greater lint yield than other treatments. Cotton in cereal rye plots had a greater lint yield than in winter fallow at one out of three locations. In conclusion, integrating herbicides and incorporating high-residue cover crops such as cereal rye is an effective weed management strategy to control troublesome weeds.

Georgia growers can benefit from double-cropping grain sorghum following watermelon to maximize land use and add economic value to their operations. However, capitalizing on the economic advantages of harvesting two crops within a single season must account for potential herbicide injury to rotational crops. An integrated weed management strategy that includes a preplant application of fomesafen and terbacil is recommended for weed control in watermelon production systems. However, currently labeled plant-back restrictions for grain sorghum require a minimum of 10 and 24 mo for fomesafen and terbacil, respectively. Therefore this research aimed to determine the tolerance of grain sorghum to fomesafen and terbacil following soil applications applied 90 to 100 d before planting (DBP). Experiments were conducted at the University of Georgia Ponder Research Farm from 2019 to 2023. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with four replicates. Five rates of fomesafen (35, 70, 140, 210, and 280 g ai ha−1), four rates of terbacil (3.5, 7.0, 10.5, and 14.0 g ai ha−1), and a nontreated control were evaluated. In 2019, fomesafen caused significant sorghum leaf necrosis, plant density reductions, height reductions, and yield reductions of at least 16%, especially when applied at rates ≥ 210 g ai ha−1. Terbacil had little to no effect on sorghum injury, density, height, or yield in any year. These results suggest that sorghum has sufficient tolerance to terbacil when applied 90 to 100 DBP. In four of five years, sorghum had an acceptable tolerance to fomesafen when applied 90 to 100 DBP. However, yield losses observed in 2019 suggest that caution should be taken when fomesafen is applied 90 to 100 DBP grain sorghum at ≥ 210 g ai ha−1.

Pink purslane is often ranked as one of the most troublesome weeds in vegetable production systems in Georgia. Pink purslane encroachment along field edges and in-field of agronomic crops has recently increased. Postemergence herbicides are an effective component of agronomic crop weed management. However, little research has addressed pink purslane control in agronomic crops. Therefore, greenhouse and field studies were conducted from 2022 to 2023 in Tifton, Georgia, to evaluate the response of pink purslane to postemergence herbicides commonly used in agronomic crops. Greenhouse screening provided preliminary evidence whereby 13 of the 21 postemergence herbicides evaluated provided ≥80% aboveground biomass reductions. These 13 herbicides were then used for field studies. Results from the field studies, pooled across two locations, indicated that only three of the 13 herbicides provided aboveground biomass reductions of ≥70% compared to the nontreated control. Those herbicides included atrazine at 1,682 g ai ha−1, glufosinate at 656 g ai ha−1, and lactofen at 219 g ai ha−1 with 79%, 70%, and 83% biomass reduction, respectively (P < 0.05). This research suggests that many of the postemergence herbicides used on agronomic crops will not effectively control pink purslane. Thus, when trying to manage pink purslane with postemergence herbicides in agronomic crops, growers should plant crops or cultivars that are tolerant of either atrazine, glufosinate, lactofen, or a combination of these.

Common ragweed is a troublesome weed in many crops. Farmers and crop advisors in the coastal Mid-Atlantic region have reported inadequate control of common ragweed in soybean fields with glyphosate and other herbicide modes of action. To determine whether herbicide resistance was one of the causes of poor herbicide performance, 29 accessions from four states (Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, and Virginia) where common ragweed plants survived herbicide applications and produced viable seeds were used for greenhouse screening. Common ragweed seedlings from those accessions were treated with multiple rates of cloransulam, fomesafen, or glyphosate, applied individually postemergence (POST). All accessions except one demonstrated resistance to at least one of the herbicides applied at twice the effective rate (2×), 17 accessions were two-way resistant (to glyphosate and cloransulam, or to glyphosate and fomesafen), and three-way resistance was present in eight accessions collected from three different states. Based on the POST study, five accessions were treated preemergence (PRE) with herbicides that inhibit acetolactate synthase (ALS), and two accessions were treated with herbicides that inhibit protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO). All accessions treated PRE with the ALS inhibitors chlorimuron or cloransulam demonstrated resistance at the 2× rates. Both accessions treated PRE with the PPO inhibitor sulfentrazone had survivors at the 2× rate. When the same accessions were treated PRE with fomesafen, one had survivors at the 2× rate, and one had survivors at the 1× rate. Results from these tests confirmed common ragweed with three-way resistance to POST herbicides is widespread in the region. In addition, this is the first confirmation that common ragweed accessions in the region are also resistant to ALS- or PPO-inhibiting herbicides when applied PRE.

Industrial hemp is a multipurpose crop cultivated for fiber, seed, human food, and animal feed. Hemp legalization in Texas creates a considerable potential to increase its acreage in semi-arid conditions; however, knowledge is limited on growing hemp optimally in Texas. Best management practices, including weed control, require evaluation for profitable hemp production. As little is known about the herbicide tolerance of hemp, field studies were conducted to test several soil-residual herbicides with different modes of action for phytotoxicity to two hemp cultivars, ‘Yuma’ and ‘Jinma’. The experimental units were randomized three times in a blocked split-plot design with hemp cultivars in the main plots and soil-residual herbicides in the subplots. Ethalfluralin, the mixture of sulfentrazone and S-metolachlor, prometryn, and S-metolachlor, resulted in 60% to 90% and 73% to 100% weed control as compared to the nontreated control in 2021 and 2022, respectively. The highest hemp germination, stand count, and plant height were observed with ethalfluralin and S-metolachlor herbicides; however, no significant differences were observed for hemp germination and plant height compared to the nontreated control. S-metolachlor, ethalfluralin, fomesafen, and prometryn resulted in similar hemp biomass compared to the nontreated control. Overall, the results indicate that hemp is tolerant to ethalfluralin, prometryn, and S-metolachlor, and these soil-residual herbicides were effective for weed control in hemp. The mixture of bicyclopyrone plus S-metolachlor, metribuzin plus S-metolachlor, and mesotrione should be avoided, as they caused significant injury to hemp plants. Future research is needed to test the efficacy of different preemergence and postemergence herbicides that can be used in industrial hemp grown under different environments, making sure the delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol content of the hemp is below the legal content restrictions.

Herbicides that inhibit protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO) are used in more than 40 agronomic and specialty crops across Georgia to manage weeds through residual and postemergence (POST) control. In 2017, a population of Palmer amaranth exhibiting reduced sensitivity to POST applications of PPO-inhibiting herbicides was identified by the University of Georgia. Seed were collected from the site along with a known sensitive population; distance between the samples was 200 m, increasing the likelihood of similar environmental and genetic characteristics. To quantify sensitivity for both preemergence (PRE) and POST uses, 21 greenhouse dose-response assessments were conducted from 2017 to 2022. After conducting initial rate-response studies, 13 doses per herbicide were chosen for the POST experiment; field use rates of fomesafen (420 g ai ha−1), lactofen (219 g ai ha−1), acifluorfen (420 g ai ha−1), and trifludimoxazin (25 g ai ha−1) ranging from 0× to 4× the field use rate for the susceptible population, and 0× to 40× for the suspect population were applied. Herbicide treatments included adjuvants and were applied to plants 8 to 10 cm in height. Relative resistance factors (RRFs) were calculated for control ratings, mortality, and biomass, and ranged from 105 to 318, 36 to 1,477, 215 to 316, and 9 to 49 for fomesafen, lactofen, acifluorfen, and trifludimoxazin, respectively. In the PRE experiment, herbicide applications included five to nine doses of fomesafen (1× = 210 g ai ha−1), flumioxazin (1× = 57 g ai ha−1), oxyfluorfen (1× = 561 g ai ha−1), and trifludimoxazin (1× = 38 g ai ha−1); doses ranged from 0× to 6× for the suspect population and 0× to 2× for the susceptible population. Visual control, mortality, and biomass RRFs ranged from 3 to 5 for fomesafen, 21 to 31 for flumioxazin, 6 to 22 for oxyfluorfen, and 8 to 38 for trifludimoxazin. Results confirm that a Georgia Palmer amaranth population is resistant to PPO-inhibiting herbicides applied both PRE and POST.

Preemergence applications of mesotrione, an herbicide that inhibits 4-hydroxyphenolpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD), have recently gained regulatory approval in soybean varieties with appropriate traits. Giant ragweed is an extremely competitive broadleaf weed, and biotypes resistant to acetolactate synthase inhibitors (ALS-R) can be particularly difficult to manage with soil-residual herbicides in soybean production. This study investigated control of giant ragweed from preemergence applications of cloransulam (32 g ai ha–1), metribuzin (315 g ai ha–1), and S-metolachlor (1,600 g ai ha–1) in a factorial design with and without mesotrione (177 g ai ha–1) at two different sites over 2 yr. Treatments with mesotrione were also compared with two commercial premix products: sulfentrazone (283 g ai ha–1) and cloransulam (37 g ai ha–1), and chlorimuron (19 g ai ha–1), flumioxazin (69 g ai ha–1), and pyroxasulfone (87 g ai ha–1). At 42 d after planting, control and biomass reduction of giant ragweed were greater in treatments with mesotrione than any treatment without mesotrione. Giant ragweed biomass was reduced by 84% in treatments with mesotrione, whereas treatments without mesotrione did not reduce biomass relative to the nontreated. Following these preemergence applications, sequential herbicide treatments utilizing postemergence applications of glufosinate (655 g ai ha–1) plus fomesafen (266 g ai ha–1) and S-metolachlor (1,217 g ai ha–1) resulted in at least 97% control of giant ragweed at 42 d after planting, which was greater than sequential applications of glufosinate alone in 3 of 4 site-years. Preemergence applications of mesotrione can be an impactful addition to soybean herbicide programs designed to manage giant ragweed, with the potential to improve weed control and delay the onset of herbicide resistance by providing an additional effective herbicide site of action.

Preemergence (PRE) herbicides are often banded over the entire top of raised beds for broadleaf and grass control in plasticulture vegetable production systems. However, broadleaf and grass weeds may emerge from the planting holes and tears in the plastic mulch. Banded application results in herbicides applied where no holes occur, and therefore, where they are not needed. Our objective is to identify herbicides that do not harm transplanted crops when directed at transplant holes after transplant (POST) with the aim to reduce off-target applications. Therefore, we evaluated tomato and pepper tolerance to PRE herbicides applied to transplant holes 2 wk after transplant and the subsequent effects on crop tolerance and weed density. Halosulfuron, S-metolachlor, metribuzin, and pendimethalin did not injure tomato transplants, reduce height, or reduce yield. Fomesafen caused some tomato injury (7%) but had no effect on other measured parameters in Trial I. All PRE herbicides injured peppers by ≥19%, although no effect on yield was observed. Overall, halosulfuron, S-metolachlor, metribuzin, and pendimethalin can be safely applied to tomato transplant holes 2 wk after transplant with no significant crop injury nor effects on final yield, but none of the evaluated herbicides are safe for use on pepper crops.

Dose-response trials to determine the tolerance of summer squash and watermelon to fomesafen applied (over the top of black polyethylene mulch and respective row middles) pre-transplanting were performed between 2020 and 2021 at three Indiana locations: the Meigs Horticulture Research Farm (MEIGS), the Pinney Purdue Agricultural Center (PPAC), and the Southwest Purdue Agricultural Center (SWPAC). Summer squash trials were performed at the MEIGS and PPAC locations, and watermelon trials were performed at the MEIGS and SWPAC locations. The experiments for both summer squash and watermelon had a split-plot arrangement in which the main plot was herbicide rate, and the subplot was cultivar. Summer squash injury included necrotic leaf margin, chlorosis, brown and white spots, and stunting. Fomesafen rates from 262 to 1,048 g ai ha−1 in 2020 at both locations, and from 280 to 1,120 g ai ha−1 in 2021 at MEIGS did not affect summer squash yield. However, in 2021 at PPAC, fomesafen applied at rates from 280 to 1,120 g ha−1 delayed summer squash harvest and decreased marketable yield from 95% to 61% compared with the nontreated control. Watermelon injury included bronzing and stunting. Fomesafen rates from 210 to 840 g ai ha−1 did not affect marketable watermelon yield or fruit number. Crop safety was attributed to rain, which washed off most of the herbicide from the polyethylene mulch before plants were transplanted or little to no rain after transplant. Injury was observed only when there was no rain before transplant followed by excessive rain shortly after transplant. Overall, the 1× rate used for each trial was safe for use 1 d before transplanting summer squash and 6 to 7 d before transplanting watermelon.

A comprehensive, Wisconsin state-wide assessment of waterhemp response to a diverse group of herbicide sites of action has not been conducted. Our objective was to characterize the response of a state-wide collection of waterhemp accessions to postemergence (POST) and preemergence (PRE) herbicides commonly used in corn and soybean in Wisconsin. Greenhouse experiments were conducted with more than 80 accessions from 27 counties. POST treatments included 2,4-D, atrazine, dicamba, fomesafen, glufosinate, glyphosate, imazethapyr, and mesotrione at 1× and 3× label rates. PRE treatments included atrazine, fomesafen, mesotrione, metribuzin, and S-metolachlor at 0.5×, 1×, and 3× label rates. Ninety-eight percent and 88% of the accessions exhibited ≥50% plant survival after exposure to imazethapyr and glyphosate POST 3× rate, respectively. Seventeen percent, 16%, and 3% of the accessions exhibited ≥50% plant survival after exposure to 2,4-D, atrazine, and dicamba, respectively, applied POST at the 1× rate. Survival of all accessions was ≤25% after exposure to 2,4-D or dicamba applied POST at the 3× rate, or glufosinate, fomesafen, and mesotrione applied POST at either rate evaluated. No plant of any accession survived exposure to glufosinate at either rate. Forty-five percent and 3% of the accessions exhibited <90% plant density reduction after exposure to atrazine applied PRE at the 3× rate and fomesafen PRE at the 1× rate, respectively. Plant density reduction of all accessions was ≥96% after exposure to fomesafen applied PRE at the 3× rate, or metribuzin, S-metolachlor, and mesotrione applied PRE at the 1× rate. Our results suggest that waterhemp resistance to imazethapyr and glyphosate applied POST is widespread in Wisconsin, whereas resistance to 2,4-D, atrazine, and dicamba applied POST is present to a lower extent. One accession (A75, Fond du Lac County) exhibited multiple resistance to imazethapyr, atrazine, glyphosate, and 2,4-D when applied POST. Overall, atrazine applied PRE was ineffective for waterhemp control in Wisconsin. Proactive resistance management and the use of effective PRE and POST herbicides are fundamental for waterhemp management in Wisconsin.

Herbicide-resistant Palmer amaranth is a troublesome weed in several agronomic crops and is a relatively new challenge to dry bean production in western Nebraska. Objectives were to evaluate preemergence (PRE) and postemergence (POST) herbicides for control of acetolactate synthase–resistant Palmer amaranth and their effect on Palmer amaranth density and biomass as well as dry bean injury and yield in western Nebraska. Field experiments were conducted in 2017 and 2019 near Scottsbluff, NE. The experiments were arranged as a two-factor strip-plot design. The strip-plot factor consisted of no-PRE or pendimethalin (1,070 g ai ha–1) + dimethenamid-P (790 g ai h–1) applied PRE. The main-plot factor was POST herbicides, which consisted of various mixtures of imazamox, bentazon, or fomesafen applied in a single or sequential application at labeled rates, and reduced rates of imazamox (9 g ai ha–1) + bentazon (314 g ai ha–1) + fomesafen (70 g ai ha–1) applied in single or sequential (two or three) applications. PRE herbicides reduced Palmer amaranth density and biomass during both years and increased dry bean yield in 2017. POST treatments containing fomesafen improved Palmer amaranth control compared with treatments containing imazamox and bentazon only. The sequential-application reduced-rate POST system did not improve Palmer amaranth control compared to one POST application containing fomesafen at a labeled rate in either year. Using pendimethalin + dimethenamid-P PRE followed by POST treatments containing imazamox + bentazon + fomesafen at a labeled rate provided 86% and 99% Palmer amaranth control in 2017 and 2019, respectively.

Three dose-response trials were performed in 2020 and 2021 to determine the tolerance of two Jack O’Lantern pumpkin cultivars to fomesafen applied preemergence at two Indiana locations: the Southwest Purdue Agricultural Center (SWPAC) and the Pinney Purdue Agricultural Center (PPAC). The experiment was a split-plot arrangement in which the main plot was the fomesafen rate of application (0, 280, 560, 840, and 1,220 g ai ha–1), and the subplot was the pumpkin cultivar (‘Bayhorse Gold’ and ‘Carbonado Gold’). As the fomesafen rate increased from 280 to 1,120 g ha–1, the predicted pumpkin emergence decreased from 85% to 25% of the nontreated control at SWPAC-2020, but only from 99% to 74% at both locations in 2021. The severe impact on emergence at SWPAC-2020 was attributed to rainfall. Visible injury included bleaching and chlorosis due to the herbicide splashing from the soil surface onto the leaves and included stunting, but injury was transient. As the fomesafen rate increased from 280 to 1,120 g ha–1, the predicted marketable orange pumpkin yield decreased from 95% to 24% of the nontreated control at SWPAC-2020 and 98% to 74% at PPAC-2021. Similarly, the predicted marketable orange pumpkin fruit number decreased from 94% to 21% at SWPAC-2020 and 98% to 74% at PPAC-2021. Fomesafen rate did not affect marketable orange pumpkin yield and fruit number at SWPAC-2021 and marketable orange pumpkin fruit weight at any location-year. Overall, the fomesafen rate of 280 g ha–1 was safe for use preemergence in the pumpkin cultivars ‘Bayhorse Gold’ and ‘Carbonado Gold’ within one day after planting, but there is a risk of increased crop injury with increasing rainfall.

Biotypes of Palmer amaranth that are resistant to acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitor are becoming widespread in western Nebraska. There are limited effective postemergence (POST) herbicides labeled for ALS-inhibitor-resistant Palmer amaranth control in dry edible bean. The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of dimethenamid-P in a sequential preemergence (PRE) fb followed by (fb) POST program at two POST application timings, the first and third trifoliate stages (V1 and V3, respectively), for controlling ALS-inhibitor-resistant Palmer amaranth in dry edible bean. A field study was conducted in 2019, 2020, and 2021 in Scottsbluff, NE. PRE-alone applications of pendimethalin + dimethenamid-P provided inconsistent Palmer amaranth control. Dimethenamid-P applied POST following a PRE application of pendimethalin + dimethenamid-P provided effective (>90%) Palmer amaranth control at 4 wk after V3 only at the V1 application timing in 2019. In 2020 and 2021 dimethenamid-P applied POST at V1 and V3 following a PRE application of pendimethalin + dimethenamid-P provided 99% and 98% Palmer amaranth control at 4 wk after V3, and 98% and 94% Palmer amaranth control at harvest, respectively. Palmer amaranth biomass was reduced by 95% to 99% and by 96% to 98% compared with the -nontreated control when dimethenamid-P was applied POST at V1 and V3, respectively, following a PRE application of pendimethalin + dimethenamid-P in 2020 and 2021. Application of a mixture of dimethenamid-P with imazamox + bentazon POST provided similar results to those of the fomesafen-containing treatments and dimethenamid-P alone POST. Dimethenamid-P applied POST following a PRE application of pendimethalin + dimethenamid-P resulted in similar yield as the fomesafen-containing treatments. If fomesafen is not an option due to the crop rotation interval restriction, using dimethenamid-P in a sequential PRE fb POST program is the only effective alternative to control ALS-inhibitor–resistant Palmer amaranth in Nebraska. The use of dimethenamid-P in a sequential PRE fb POST program, alone or mixed with foliar-active herbicides should be considered by dry edible bean growers who are dealing with ALS-inhibitor-resistant Palmer amaranth.

Smooth pigweed is one of the most troublesome weeds in Argentina. The objective of this study was to evaluate the sensitivity of 50 smooth pigweed accessions to fomesafen, topramezone, glyphosate, 2,4-D, and dicamba. Accessions were collected from soybean fields in various cropping areas in Argentina. The herbicide treatments included 2,4-D (1,140 g ae ha−1), dicamba (560 g ae ha−1), fomesafen (250 g ai ha−1), topramezone (34 g ai ha−1), and glyphosate (1,080 g ae ha−1). Plant survival was evaluated 30 d after each treatment application. Of the smooth pigweed accessions tested, 84% and 76% were susceptible (0% survival) to 2,4-D and dicamba, respectively. More than 90% of the accessions showed high (>60%) survival to glyphosate. While none of the accessions showed total sensitivity (0% survival) to the other herbicides evaluated, 43% and 72% of the accessions showed greater than 60% survival to fomesafen and topramezone, respectively. The differences in survival among accessions confirm the existence of genetic variability in Argentinian smooth pigweed and suggest that weed management practices should be prioritized to preserve the efficacy of these commonly used herbicides.

Recent research reported synergism between glufosinate plus very low rates of protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO)–inhibiting herbicides on select broadleaf weeds. Two field studies, each consisting of four trials, were conducted in 2020 and 2021 in commercial fields with glyphosate-resistant (GR) horseweed in Ontario, Canada. Study 1 evaluated GR horseweed control with glufosinate plus five PPO inhibitors at 5% of the label rate; study 2 evaluated what dose of saflufenacil is needed when co-applied with glufosinate to improve GR horseweed control. In study 1, glufosinate plus very low rates of PPO-inhibiting herbicides provided low GR horseweed control. At site 1, despite the synergistic increase in GR horseweed control with saflufenacil (1.25 g ai ha–1) plus glufosinate (300 g ai ha–1), the level of control did not exceed 42% at 2 and 4 wk after application (WAA); the interaction was additive at 8 WAA. The co-application of glufosinate (300 g ai ha–1) with pyraflufen-ethyl (0.34 g ai ha–1), pyraflufen-ethyl/2,4-D (26.4 g ai ha–1), flumioxazin (5.35 g ai ha–1), fomesafen (12 g ai ha–1), or sulfentrazone (7 g ai ha–1) resulted in an additive interaction for GR horseweed control at 2, 4, and 8 WAA. However, glufosinate plus pyraflufen-ethyl or sulfentrazone was antagonistic at 8 WAA. In study 2, similar doses of saflufenacil were required for 50%, 80%, and 95% GR horseweed control whether glufosinate was included in the mixture or not. Interactions between glufosinate (300 g ai ha–1) plus saflufenacil at 1.56, 3.13, 6.25, and 12.5 g ai ha–1 were antagonistic at 2, 4, and 8 WAA at sites 1, 2, and 3; all other interactions were additive. The results of this research indicate there was little to no benefit of adding very low rates of PPO-inhibiting herbicides to glufosinate to improve GR horseweed control under field conditions.

Studies were conducted in 2019 and 2020 in Lewiston, NC, to determine the crop response of 4-hydroxyphenylpyrivate dioxygenase (HPPD)-resistant cotton to isoxaflutole (IFT) and other cotton herbicides as part of a cotton weed management program that included herbicides applied preemergence, early postemergence (EPOST), and mid-postemergence (MPOST). IFT was applied PRE at 105 g ha−1 alone and in various combinations with acetochlor, diuron, fluometuron, fluridone, fomesafen, pendimethalin, and pyrithiobac. EPOST treatments included IFT at 53 or 105 g ha−1 alone or in combination with glyphosate or glufosinate, or dimethenamid-P + glufosinate. Glyphosate + glufosinate was applied MPOST to all treatments except the nontreated control. Cotton injury from IFT applied PRE was minimal (0% to 3%). Injury following EPOST application of dimethenamid-P + glufosinate ranged from 3% to 5% and 6% to 9% in 2019 and 2020, respectively. In both years, injury from IFT applied PRE followed by IFT applied EPOST never exceeded injury from IFT applied PRE followed by dimethenamid-P + glufosinate. Isoxaflutole applied PRE followed by IFT applied EPOST at 105 g ha−1 resulted in 0% to 2% cotton injury, indicating that IFT can be applied either PRE or EPOST with minimal risk to cotton. Late-season cotton height and cotton lint yield were not affected by any herbicide treatment. The experimental HPPD-resistant cotton cultivar was minimally injured by IFT applied PRE and EPOST, it tolerated standard cotton herbicides, and yield loss was not observed. Given these results, HPPD-resistant cotton and IFT may be integrated into cotton weed management systems with minimal risk for cotton injury and provide an additional effective mechanism of action for managing troublesome weeds in cotton.

Herbicides with soil-residual activity have the potential for carryover into subsequent crops, resulting in injury to sensitive crops and limiting productivity if severe. The increased use of soil-residual herbicides in the United States for management of troublesome weeds in corn- and soybean-cropping systems has potential to result in more cases of carryover. Soil management practices have different effects on the soil environment, potentially influencing herbicide degradation and likelihood of carryover. Field experiments were conducted at three sites in 2019 and 2020 to determine the effects of corn (clopyralid and mesotrione) and soybean (fomesafen and imazethapyr) herbicides applied in the fall at reduced rates (25% and 50% of labeled rates) and three soil management practices (tillage, no-tillage, and a fall-established cereal rye cover crop) on subsequent growth and productivity of the cereal rye cover crop and the soybean and corn crops, respectively. Most response variables (cereal rye biomass and crop canopy cover at cover crop termination in the spring, early-season crop stand and herbicide injury ratings, and crop yield) were not affected by herbicide carryover. Corn yield was lower when soil was managed with a cereal rye cover crop compared with tillage at all three sites, while yield was lower for no-till compared with tillage at two sites. Soybean yield was lower when managed with a cereal rye cover crop compared with tillage and no-till at one site. Findings from this research indicate a low carryover risk for these herbicides across site-years when label rotational restrictions are followed and environmental conditions favorable for herbicide degradation exist, regardless of soil management practice on silt loam or silty clay loam soil types in the U.S. Midwest region.

Laboratory and greenhouse studies were conducted to evaluate the effects of chemical treatments applied to Palmer amaranth seeds or gynoecious plants that retain seeds to determine seed germination and quality. Treatments applied to physiologically mature Palmer amaranth seed included acifluorfen, dicamba, ethephon, flumioxazin, fomesafen, halosulfuron, linuron, metribuzin, oryzalin, pendimethalin, pyroxasulfone, S-metolachlor, saflufenacil, trifluralin, and 2,4-D plus crop oil concentrate applied at 1× and 2× the suggested use rates from the manufacturer. Germination was reduced by 20% when 2,4-D was used, 15% when dicamba was used, and 13% when halosulfuron and pyroxasulfone were used. Use of dicamba, ethephon, halosulfuron, oryzalin, trifluralin, and 2,4-D resulted in decreased seedling length by an average of at least 50%. Due to the observed effect of dicamba, ethephon, halosulfuron, oryzalin, trifluralin, and 2,4-D, these treatments were applied to gynoecious Palmer amaranth inflorescence at the 2× registered application rates to evaluate their effects on progeny seed. Dicamba use resulted in a 24% decrease in seed germination, whereas all other treatment results were similar to those of the control. Crush tests showed that seed viability was greater than 95%, thus dicamba did not have a strong effect on seed viability. No treatments applied to Palmer amaranth inflorescence affected average seedling length; therefore, chemical treatments did not affect the quality of seeds that germinated.

The ability to use the protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO)-inhibiting herbicides fomesafen, flumioxazin, and sulfentrazone in potato is limited regionally or by soil texture, largely because of crop injury noted in research in the 1990s. With that in mind, we evaluated whether reducing the herbicide rates could maintain weed control while providing more consistent crop safety. Studies were conducted on a silt loam and a coarse-textured loamy sand soil. Soil texture played a greater than anticipated role in PPO-inhibitor herbicide injury risk as it relates to high-precipitation events. For example, in 2020 at the silt loam location, there were five precipitation events across the season that exceeded 2.5 cm, including one 6 d after treatment (DAT), and a seasonal total precipitation that was over 10 cm greater than the previous year. Despite excessive moisture and initial potato injury as high as 27% where flumioxazin was applied at the high rate with S-metolachlor, by 29 DAT injury was less than 10% in all treatments, and marketable tuber yield was similar among treatments. In contrast, in 2020 at the loamy sand location, there were four precipitation events across the season that exceeded 2.5 cm, and potato injury was as much as 60%. In 2020 the high amount of injury from flumioxazin was hypothesized to be caused by precipitation before herbicide application and not after, suggesting a need for more research in this area. This work documents the fine line between yield reduction presumably caused by reduced weed control and yield reduction assumed to be related to herbicide injury. This delineation between adequate weed control and consistent crop safety may differ by soil texture and environmental conditions, supporting the notion that custom-tailored weed management may become more necessary as high-precipitation events become more common in upper midwestern U.S. agricultural systems.

Glyphosate-resistant (GR) Palmer amaranth is one of the most difficult to control weeds in soybean production fields in Nebraska and the United States. An integrated approach is required for effective management of GR Palmer amaranth. Cultural practices such as narrow row spacing might augment herbicide efficacy for management of GR Palmer amaranth. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effect of row spacing and herbicide programs for management of GR Palmer amaranth in dicamba/glyphosate-resistant (DGR) soybean. Field experiments were conducted in a grower’s field with a uniform population of GR Palmer amaranth near Carleton, Nebraska, in 2018 and 2019. Year-by-herbicide program-by-row spacing interactions were significant for all variables; therefore, data were analyzed by year. Herbicides applied PRE controlled GR Palmer amaranth ≥95% in both years 14 d after PRE (DAPRE). Across soybean row-spacing, most PRE followed by (fb) early-POST (EPOST) herbicide programs provided 84% to 97% control of Palmer amaranth compared with most EPOST fb late-post (LPOST) programs, excluding dicamba in single and sequential applications (82% to 95% control). Mixing microencapsulated acetochlor with a POST herbicide in PRE fb EPOST herbicide programs controlled Palmer amaranth ≥93% 14 d after EPOST and ≥96% 21 d after LPOST with no effect on Palmer amaranth density. Interaction of herbicide program-by-row spacing on Palmer amaranth control was not significant; however, biomass reduction was significant at soybean harvest in 2019. The herbicide programs evaluated in this study caused no soybean injury. Due to drought conditions during a majority of the 2018 growing season, soybean yield in 2018 was reduced compared with 2019.