Myrmecochory, the dispersal of seeds with lipid-rich appendages by ants, is a significant ant–plant interaction. Less well understood is the potential for ant dispersal of non-myrmecochorous seeds. Here we investigate ant–diaspore interactions in a West African montane habitat. We combine observation with depot experiments to determine ant species that move diaspores and distance moved across a forest-edge-grassland gradient. We recorded seed cleaning by ants using a bird/mammal dispersed Paullinia pinnata to determine whether seed cleaning improved plant fitness. We found that two out of a total of 17 ant species (Pheidole sp. 1 and Myrmicaria opaciventris) interacted with 10 species of non-myrmecochorous diaspores across nine plant families. Diaspores were from large canopy trees, understorey trees and vines. Both ant species interacted with small (≤0.24 g) and large (≥0.24 g) diaspores. Ants individually moved small diaspores up to 1.2 m and worked together to clean larger ones. Our experiments with P. pinnata showed that ants removed the pulp of 70% of fruit over 5 days. Cleaned seeds germinated significantly faster and produced seedlings with significantly longer shoot length and higher fresh weight than seedlings from intact seeds. Together our results suggest that ant dispersal may be less significant than seed cleaning in Afromontane forests. However, given the decline in vertebrate frugivores across Africa, a small dispersal advantage may become increasingly important to plant fitness.

The characterization of modern pollen rain assemblages along environmental gradients is an essential prerequisite for reliable interpretations of fossil pollen records. In this study, we identify pollen-vegetation relationships using modern pollen rain assemblages in moss polsters (n = 13) and lake sediment surface samples (n = 11) along a steep temperature gradient of 7°C (3100–4200 m above sea level) on the western Andean Cordillera, Ecuador. The pollen rain is correlated to vascular plant abundance data recorded in vegetation relevées (n = 13). Results show that pollen spectra from both moss polsters and sediment surface samples reflect changes in species composition along the temperature gradient, despite overrepresentation of upper montane forest taxa in the latter. Estimated pollen transport distance for a lake (Laguna Llaviucu) situated in a steep upper montane forest valley is 1–2 km, while a lake (Laguna Pallcacocha) in the páramo captures pollen input from a distance of up to 10–40 km. Weinmannia spp., Podocarpus spp., and Hedyosmum sp. are indicators of local upper montane forest vegetation, while Phlegmariurus spp. and Plantago spp. are indicators for local páramo vegetation.

To investigate changes in vegetation and climate with altitude, we established forest plots and recorded climatic data at 100-m intervals between 550–1100 m asl on the western slopes of Mount Batilamu, Mount Koroyanitu range, Viti Levu, Fiji. Trees with a dbh ≥10 cm were identified and measured in 21 10 × 10-m plots, starting at 750 m altitude. Temperature and relative humidity sensors were deployed in two habitats, leaf litter and 50 cm above the ground, and two vegetation types, grasslands and forest, at six altitudes over a 48-h period. Two significantly distinct forest types, lowland and montane, were present. Montane forest was found at higher elevations (>950 m asl) and had significantly higher stem density. Mean temperature decreased significantly with altitude and was strongly moderated by vegetation type (lower average and less variation in forest). While average relative humidity significantly increased with altitude, it was strongly moderated by both habitat and vegetation type (higher average and less variation in leaf litter and forest). The lapse rate varied with time of day (higher during the day) and vegetation type (higher in grasslands). Therefore, vegetation and microhabitats create unique microclimates, and this should be considered when investigating current or future climatic patterns along altitudinal gradients on forested mountains.

The functional composition of plant communities in montane regions has been studied for decades, and most recent analyses find that environmentally favourable landscapes at lower altitudes tend to be dominated by species with resource-acquisitive traits, while more resource-conservative taxa dominate higher-altitude communities. However, it is unclear the extent to which this pattern is driven by co-gradient variation within clades or changes in clade representation across the gradient. To test for co-gradient variation, species composition, phylogenetic structure and functional traits were quantified for 97 species within the plant family Melastomataceae at five locations across a 2500-m altitudinal gradient along Volcán Barva in Costa Rica. Average melastome leaf force to punch, specific leaf area and leaf size vary with altitude, while four other functional traits do not. Taxonomic dissimilarity between communities was correlated with altitudinal difference, while phylogenetic dissimilarity was correlated with altitudinal dissimilarity only when measured with a metric that emphasizes shallow turnover of the tips of the phylogeny. These results highlight how species turnover may be more pronounced than functional or phylogenetic variation along altitudinal gradients. In addition, these results highlight the conservation value of lowland tropical forests, which here harbour a disproportionate amount of phylogenetic and functional diversity.

Fragmentation of tropical forests influences abiotic and biotic processes that affect the genetic structure of plant populations. In forest fragments, edge effects, i.e. changes of abiotic and biotic factors at forest edges, may be prevalent. In two forest fragments (c. 200 ha at c. 2450 m asl) of tropical montane forest in Bolivia, sympatric populations of the dioecious tree species Clusia sphaerocarpa and C. lechleri were used as case study species to compare genetic diversity and small-scale genetic structure (SGS) between edge and interior habitats. Eight microsatellite markers were employed to genotype 343 individuals including adults, juveniles and seedlings of C. sphaerocarpa and 196 of C. lechleri. Genetic differentiation was found between habitats in both species (ΦRT = 0.071 for C. sphaerocarpa and ΦRT = 0.028 for C. lechleri) and among ages in C. sphaerocarpa (ΦRT = 0.016). Overall, SGS was weak but significant with more pronounced SGS in C. lechleri (Sp = 0.0128) than in C. sphaerocarpa (Sp = 0.0073). However, positive spatial genetic autocorrelation extended only up to 10 m. For C. sphaerocarpa, SGS was stronger in seedling and juvenile stages than in adults and in the forest interior than at forest edges. Our results show that edge effects can extend to the genetic level by breaking-up local genetic structures, probably due to increased gene flow and enhanced pollination and seed-dispersal interactions at forest edges.

The Tucumán parrot Amazona tucumana is restricted to the southern Yungas mountains, from south-eastern Bolivia to north-western Argentina, and has undergone intense capture for the pet trade. We provide updated information on the status of the Bolivian population of the species and past capture levels for the international pet trade. We surveyed 18 sites during the non-breeding season in 2006 and 2007 and recorded a total of 1,643 individuals. In the 1980s 5,400 Tucumán parrots were captured for the international pet trade before the species was listed on CITES Appendix I. Capture of the Tucumán parrot for local trade appears to continue but at a reduced scale. Available evidence from this study and from Argentina indicates a need to change the categorization of the species on the IUCN Red List from Near Threatened to Vulnerable.

Seed dispersal is the first stage of colonization, and potentially affects recruitment. This process deserves more attention in tropical montane cloud forests (TMCF), since secondary succession is common owing to episodic disturbances. We studied annual seed rain in 10 nearby forest stands, ≈7 to ≈100 y following shifting agriculture, and one primary forest stand in southern Mexico to test the hypothesis that seed rain is limited at the scale of neighbouring fragments and that such limitation differs among species with different dispersal modes and successional origin. Annual seed rain was heterogeneous among forest fragments probably due to the prevalence of local seed dispersal, differences in stand age and the proportion of zoochory, and may help explain the patchy distribution of species observed in TMCF. Seed rain abundance and species diversity per unit trap area increased with the age of the stand. Biotically dispersed seeds increased towards older stands relative to abiotically dispersed seeds. Late-successional seeds were rarer in early successional stands than pioneer seeds in late-successional stands, suggesting that long-distance dispersal is generally more common for pioneer plants. Seed dispersal appears to constrain forest regeneration and to influence fragment species composition as a function of the distance from the source forests.

The regeneration processes and the spatial distribution of the shade-intolerant Weinmannia tinctoria seedlings in the south of Réunion were investigated, with a special focus on the role of tree-ferns in seedling establishment. Mature individuals and seedling patches of Weinmannia tinctoria, and also tree-ferns, were mapped on two 1-ha rain-forest plots. Weinmannia tinctoria has hemi-epiphytic behaviour since seedlings were generally located on plant supports (99.6%). Regeneration was better on a support than on the ground, and germination tests showed that seeds were light-stimulated. Tall tree-ferns (Cyathea spp.) were suitable supports. Cyathea glauca and C. excelsa were more suitable supports than C. borbonica. Weinmannia tinctoria establishment complies with the facilitation model of succession and is dependent on tree-ferns.

La régénération et la distribution spatiale des semis de Weinmannia tinctoria, espèce intolérante à l'ombre, ont été étudiées dans le sud de La Réunion. Nous nous sommes intéressés au rôle des fougères arborescentes sur l'émergence de plantules. Les adultes matures et les taches de semis (ensembles de plusieurs plantules) de Weinmannia tinctoria, de même que les fougères arborescentes, ont été cartographiés sur deux parcelles de 1 ha en forêt humide. Weinmannia tinctoria a un comportement hémi-épiphyte car les semis se situaient principalement sur des supports (99,6%). La régénération se révélait meilleure sur les supports qu'au sol, et les tests de germination ont montré que les semences germaient mieux à la lumière. Les grandes fougères arborescentes (Cyathea spp.) constituaient des supports privilégiés. Cyathea glauca et Cyathea excelsa représentaient des supports plus favorables que Cyathea borbonica. W. tinctoria apparaît donc comme une espèce qui s'installe principalement en utilisant le modèle de facilitation et qui dépend de la présence de fougères arborescentes.

The dependent flora was surveyed on 20 trees at a 1.5-ha site in montane rain forest at 2600 m altitude in western Venezuela. Vascular species were recorded over the whole site and totalled 120 epiphytes, 21 climbers, 3 hemiepiphytes, 5 nomadic vines and 6 mistletoes. Non-vascular species were recorded within 95 sample plots and totalled 22 mosses, 66 liverworts and 46 macrolichens. The angiosperm species were restricted in geographical range to the Neotropics; 22.1% were endemic to Venezuela. Pteridophyte and bryophyte species were largely restricted to the Neotropics but few were endemic. Macrolichen species were mostly pantropical or cosmopolitan; only 9.6% were restricted to the Neotropics and none was endemic. Canonical Correspondence Analysis found the environmental variables most closely correlated with variation in community composition to be height above ground and a horizontal gradient reflecting differences in forest structure. The epiphytic vegetation was classified using Two-way Indicator Species Analysis into a Syrrhopodon gaudichaudii–Elaphoglossum hoffmannii group of lower trunks, an Omphalanthus filiformis–Maxillaria miniata group of intermediate levels and an Usnea–Parmotrema group of upper crowns. Diversity increased with height above ground; non-vascular diversity was greatest in upper crowns whereas vascular diversity was greatest at intermediate levels. Similarity levels were low among sample plots of the same community, whereas between-tree and between-stand similarities were relatively high.

During October–December 2002 a team from the University of Canterbury, New Zealand, the Nigerian Conservation Foundation and the Nigerian National Parks visited the montane forests of Taraba State, eastern Nigeria. Their aim was to identify changes in the forests that had occurred since they were last described in detail during the 1970s. Then the forests were rich in Afromontane endemics, were home to at least 24 threatened plant species, and harboured abundant wildlife. In 2002 all but one of the forest fragments visited were intact, although some of the smaller fragments had further reduced in size. The most obvious differences between 2002 and the 1970s were the dramatic reduction in wildlife, and the depletion of montane grassland and associated species. For these forests and their associated fauna to survive, more local, national and global support is urgently required for management to prevent species loss.

We studied the avian foraging ecology in a single montane forest of northern Kenya, analysing the pattern of seasonal variation (wet vs. dry period) and its relationship with habitat structure. The foraging behaviour of 28 species was described in terms of four major dimensions (i.e. foraging technique, food substrate, perching site and perching height). Seasonal rainfall produced an increase in vegetation growth in the lower vegetation layers, while fruiting and flowering peaked in the dry season. We did not find much seasonal variation in foraging ecology when we analysed our data at the species or at the community levels. At the guild level, however, we found some seasonal shifts in perching height, food substrate and foraging technique. Some of these shifts seemed to be determined by food availability and distribution, as omnivores increased fruit consumption when this resource was more abundant, and nectarivores tracked the vertical distribution of flowers. The vertical biomass distribution of this avian community seemed to be largely determined by food. However, seasonal variation in the total biomass of some guilds was probably related to factors not considered in this study, such as breeding, or intra-African migratory movements. Altogether, despite marked seasonal variation in vegetation structure and food resources, the bird assemblage showed little change in its feeding ecology and micro-habitat use. Hence, we suggest that changes in habitat structure and resource levels were coped with primarily by adjusting population density and food requirements through seasonal breeding or migration.

A review was carried out of the mammalian fauna of the Kilum-Ijim forest in the mountains of northwest Cameroon. The purpose was to examine the loss of species, particularly of larger mammals, and the implications of this for forest ecology. Information was collected by direct observation, hunter interviews and a literature review. The forest is the largest remaining representative fragment of the West African montane forest habitat. Seventy-seven species of mammal have been recorded in the forest over the last 50 years. Most are small, especially rodents, bats and insectivores. Seven species are endemic to the Kilum-Ijim area. The process of species extirpation probably began over 100 years ago with the loss of the mega-fauna, possibly beginning with elephant Loxodonta africana (several generations ago), and certainly with buffalo Syncerus caffer (at least 20 years ago), and other large mammals. Remaining large mammal population densities are very low and many species are close to regional extinction. The long-term consequences of these extinctions is uncertain but, as many tree species are monkey- or ruminant-dispersed, severe ecosystem damage has probably already occurred. Human population density in the area is around 300 people per sq km, and no sustainable offtake of wild animals will ever be possible that would provide more than a few grams of meat per person per year from the forest. The protein requirements of the communities of the area will have to continue to be supplied from domesticated stock. Since 1987 the Kilum-Ijim Forest Project of BirdLife International has been working to conserve the remaining forest, using a community forestry approach in collaboration with traditional and local authorities and the government of Cameroon. The project is investigating ways to improve the production of domestic animals outside the forest boundary.

Small mammals were sampled in two natural habitats (montane stunted evergreen forests and montane grassland) and four anthropogenic habitats (tea, wattle, bluegum and pine plantation) in the Upper Nilgiris in southern India. Of the species trapped, eight were in montane evergreen forests and three were in other habitats. Habitat discrimination was studied in the rodents Rattus rattus and Mus famulus and the shrew Suncus montanus in the montane forest habitat. Multivariate tests on five variables (canopy cover, midstorey density, ground cover, tree density, canopy height) showed that R. rattus uses areas of higher tree density and lower canopy cover. Suncus montanus and M. famulus use habitat with higher tree density and ground cover and lower canopy height. Multivariate tests did not discriminate habitat use between the species. Univariate tests, however, showed that M. famulus uses areas of higher tree density than R. rattus and S. montanus. Rattus rattus was the dominant species in the montane forest, comprising 60.9% of total density, while the rodent Millardia meltada was the dominant species in the grassland. Studies of spatial interaction between these two species in habitats where they coexisted showed neither overlap nor avoidance between the species. Rattus rattus, however, did use areas of lower ground cover than did M. meltada. The analysis of spatial interactions between the species, habitat discrimination and use, and the removal experiments suggest that interspecific competition may not be a strong force in structuring these small mammal communities. There are distinct patterns in the use of different habitats by some species, but microhabitat selection and segregation is weak. Other factors such as intraspecific competition may play a more important role in these communities.

Results presented in this paper demonstrate the relationship between two data sets from Mubwindi Swamp, south-west Uganda. The first data set is from a survey of dryland montane forest within the immediate catchment and the second is in the form of pollen spectra recovered from surface samples of sediment. Numerical analysis grouped pollen types encountered into five categories, according to their level of representivity when compared with abundances of the same taxa in the sampled vegetation: under representative, moderately under representative, representative, moderately over representative, and over representative. The northern part of Mubwindi Swamp also yielded a 5-m-long sequence of organic-rich sediments (core MB6) from which sub-fossil pollen and radiocarbon data have been previously obtained. This provides an opportunity to apply calibration factors derived from modern pollen–vegetation relationships to sub-fossil pollen data that were obtained from the same site. These calibration factors effectively down-weighted the influence of over representative pollen types and permitted the discrimination of a phase of forest disturbance that had not previously been so clearly visible in sub- fossil pollen data.