During capture, in order to separate him from a possessive adult female and return him to his mother, a newborn male in a laboratory group of Cebus capucinus monkeys was found to have a seriously infected compound fracture of the humerus associated with a deep and extensive slash wound. Amputation of the affected limb was deemed necessary. Shortly after surgery the newborn was returned to his mother, in isolation from the group, with periodic removal for post-surgical care. Three weeks later the mother-newborn pair was returned to the social group and no further intervention occurred. Regular observations revealed mutual behavioural adjustments to the handicap by the mother and newborn. Compared to a normal age-mate, the amputee received more positive social attention from the mother and other group-members. Despite his showing delays in locomotor and manipulatory activities, the handicapped infant showed good behavioural progress. Early resocialization thus appears feasible following emergency surgery in newborn primates.

The effects of maternal and peer separation during infancy and juvenescence on adolescent and adult chimpanzee behaviour were studied. The aim was to provide an insight into the social development of the species and to investigate human influence on this process. Forty-three adolescent and adult chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), from a variety of backgrounds, were studied at five zoos in the UK. Details of play and grooming interactions were recorded. Competence at initiating, maintaining and contributing to play and grooming interactions was assessed. It was predicted that, regardless of their present environment, captive chimpanzees that were reared without their mother would be less competent and complex in these social abilities than mother-reared chimpanzees. Results indicated that the chimpanzees' social skills showed few detrimental effects of maternal separation. Nevertheless, individuals that had been human-reared demonstrated more unsuccessful initiations of social interactions and fewer polyadic grooming interactions than their mother-reared peers. Therefore, rearing background may have only a limited effect on adult chimpanzees' social competence. Adult chimpanzees that were hand-reared or nursery-reared may be exhibiting a recovery of their social skills, or they may be unaffected by their rearing background; alternatively, the effects of rearing may have been masked by more significant factors, such as current management.

This study investigated the influence of being reared with or without access to peat as well as the effects of losing or gaining substrate access on the dustbathing behaviour of young, domestic fowl (Gallus gallus domesticus). There were four treatments, based on the period of time chicks had access to peat during rearing: (i) always (LL), (ii) never (NN), (iii) from 0 to 6 weeks of age (LN) and (iv) from 6 weeks of age onwards (NL). Observations on the number and length of dustbaths performed were made for six days with birds aged six weeks and 50% of the birds either lost or gained access to litter. The birds then remained in the same treatment conditions until 16 weeks of age, at which point the same behavioural observations were repeated. NL birds (which had just gained access to peat) were found to be quicker than LN birds (which had just lost access to peat) to perform a dustbath during the first observation period. A significant difference was seen in the variation of the duration of the dustbathing bouts; both LL and NL birds varied less in the lengths of their bouts than NN and LN birds over both observation periods. Hence, early rearing environment had less effect on birds’ dustbathing behaviour than current access or lack of access to litter. The irregular dustbathing pattern exhibited by birds that dustbathe without litter could be a sign of frustration; an indication that dustbathing without litter — unlike dustbathing in litter — does not provide the required feedback.

The hypothesis of the research was the assumption, that manganese nanoparticles can affect the body in the same way as macromolecules. Their smaller size and greater biological reactivity will potentially allow the Mn addition to the diet to be reduced and, consequently, less excretion of this element into the environment. The aim of the study was to determine whether the use of Mn nanoparticles would make it possible to reduce the level of this micronutrient added to turkey diets without adversely affecting redox reactions in cells and epigenetic changes. The experiment was conducted on six groups with 10 replications, in a two-factor design with three dosages of manganese: 100, 50 and 10 mg/kg, and two sources: manganese oxide (MnO) and manganese nanoparticles (NP-Mn2O3). Markers of oxidative stress determined in the blood, that is, the concentration of lipid hydroperoxides, malondialdehyde, protein carbonyl derivatives, 3-nitrotyrosine, 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine, total glutathione, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, catalase, ceruloplasmin, total antioxidant status, albumin and vitamin C content. The level of epigenetic changes in the blood was determined by analysing global DNA methylation. In the experiment, in which the diet of turkeys was supplemented with two forms of Mn (MnO or NP-Mn2O3) at three dosages: 100, 50 and 10 mg/kg, the 10 mg/kg dose, especially in the form of NP-Mn2O3, induced lipid oxidation reactions to the greatest extent. Irrespective of the dosage of Mn in the turkey diet, Mn in the form of NP-Mn2O3 was found to reduce protein nitration more than Mn in the form of MnO. Reducing the Mn dosage in the diet from 100 to 50 mg/kg and then to 10 mg/kg is unfavourable because proportionally increases protein and DNA oxidation in cells, decreases the activity of antioxidant enzymes, and increases the level of glutathione. Reducing the dosage from 100 to 10 mg/kg increases global DNA methylation. The reduction of the Mn level, regardless of the form used, is disadvantageous, because it weakens the defense of the antioxidant system, which consequently can induce oxidative processes in the cells. Although Mn in the form of NP-Mn2O3 reduce protein nitration better than in MnO form, the use of manganese nanoparticles in turkey feeding (even in lower doses) requires further study.

Puberty attainment in dairy heifers has been widely studied from a hormonal point of view, but few studies have focussed on puberty–blood profile relationships during growth. We led experiments to determine the effects of feeding treatments on growth parameters, age at puberty and plasma biochemical profiles, and the relationships between age at puberty and metabolic profiles at 6, 9, 12 and 15 months (mo) of age. Blood samples were collected from 67 Holstein heifers, born between September 2011 and February 2012, every 10 days from 5.5 mo of age until heifers were considered pubertal (plasma progesterone concentration greater than 1.0 ng/ml) or oestrus synchronisation (November 2012; 11 to 15 mo of age). Heifers born before 30 November were fed either a standard diet (SD, n=27) or an intensive-plane diet (ID1, n=27) from 0 to 6 mo of age. This strategy aimed to reach 190 to 200 kg (SD) or 220 to 230 kg (ID1) BW at 6 mo of age. All heifers born after 1 December received an intensive-plane diet (ID2, n=13) from birth until oestrus synchronisation, in order to reach a similar BW at first insemination as heifers born before 1 December. Only 56 heifers reached puberty before oestrus synchronisation, at an average age of 10.3±2.2 mo (6.2 to 14.4 mo) and a BW of 296±40 kg (224 to 369 kg). There was no difference among the three feeding treatments until 6 mo, but at 9, 12 and 15 mo of age, ID2 (n=11) heifers weighed 37, 52 and 30 kg more than SD (n=22) and ID1 (n=23) heifers (P<0.001), respectively. Glucose, non-esterified fatty acids, albumin, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase, calcium, phosphorus, potassium and iron decreased with age, whereas β-hydroxybutyric acid, total cholesterol, creatinine, the creatinine : albumin ratio, alanine aminotransferase and chloride increased. The feeding treatment significantly affected creatinine, the creatinine : albumin ratio, and phosphorus and sodium levels, which were higher for ID2 heifers compared with SD and ID1. A logistic regression based on plasma metabolites at 6 mo of age to explain puberty attainment before or at 12 mo of age showed a positive relationship with plasma cholesterol (odds ratio=9.05). In conclusion, the feeding treatment had minor consequences on plasma metabolites, but it did affect growth performance.

The experiment reported in this Research Communication aimed to determine the combined effects of early weaning and post-weaning feeding level on growth, reproductive parameters and milk yield in Alpine goats. Sixty-four Alpine goat kids were weaned abruptly at either 12·2 (±1·40) kg (40 d of age, E) or 17·7 (±2·30) kg (60 d of age, No). After weaning, E and No goats were subjected to 2 feeding strategies (n = 16): ad libitum concentrate until 130 d of age and then 620 g DM/d/goat until 200 d of age (EC and NoC) or ad libitum concentrate until 200 d of age (EAL and NoAL). Goats were weighed twice a month until 200 d of age. Pregnancy rate and litter size were recorded. Daily milk yield was measured by milk meter during the first lactation. Up to 60 d of age, average daily gain (ADG) of E kids was significantly lower than No kids. From 60 to 130 d of age, ADG of the four treatments were not different. After 130 d of age, EC and NoC kids had lower ADG than EAL and NoAL kids. Pregnancy rates of EAL and NoAL goats were lower than those of EC and NoC. Milk yield was not modified by weaning weight or feeding management. Milk quality was not affected by any treatment. To conclude, the age at weaning as well as the feeding level after weaning did not negatively impact growth and milk yield. We hypothesise that the establishment of the lactation function is not impacted by rearing management. Hence, decreasing the age at weaning could be an interesting way to reduce the cost of the rearing period in goat kids.

Free-range laying hen systems are increasing within Australia. The pullets for these systems are typically reared indoors before being provided first range access around 21 to 26 weeks of age. Thus, the rearing and laying environments are disparate and hens may not adapt well to free-range housing. In this study, we reared 290 Hy-Line® Brown day-old chicks divided into two rooms each with feed, water and litter. In the enriched room, multiple structural, manipulable, visual and auditory stimuli were also provided from 4 to 21 days, the non-enriched room had no additional objects or stimuli. Pullets were transferred to the laying facility at 12 weeks of age and divided into six pens (three enriched-reared, three non-enriched-reared) with identical indoor resources and outdoor range area. All birds were first provided range access at 21 weeks of age. Video observations of natural disturbance behaviours on the range at 22 to 23 and 33 to 34 weeks of age showed no differences in frequency of disturbance occurrences between treatment groups (P=0.09) but a decrease in disturbance occurrences over time (P<0.0001). Radio-frequency identification tracking of individually tagged birds from 21 to 37 weeks of age showed enriched birds on average, spent less time on the range each day (P<0.04) but with a higher number of range visits than non-enriched birds from 21 to 24 weeks of age (P=0.01). Enriched birds accessed the range on more days (P=0.03) but over time, most birds in both treatment groups accessed the range daily. Basic external health scoring showed minimal differences between treatment groups with most birds in visibly good condition. At 38 weeks of age all birds were locked inside for 2 days and from 40 to 42 weeks of age the outdoor range was reduced to 20% of its original size to simulate stressful events. The eggs from non-enriched birds had higher corticosterone concentrations following lock-in and 2 weeks following range reduction compared with the concentrations within eggs from enriched birds (P<0.0001). Correspondingly, the enriched hens showing a greater increase in the number of visits following range area reduction compared to non-enriched hens (P=0.02). Only one rearing room per treatment was used but these preliminary data indicate 3 weeks of early enrichment had some long-term effects on hen ranging behaviour and enhanced hen’s adaptability to environmental stressors.

Severe feather-pecking (SFP), whereby birds vigorously peck at and pull out the feathers of conspecifics, is an extremely injurious, highly prevalent behaviour. It has acute negative impacts on the egg industry worldwide, in terms of both animal welfare and production efficiency. A large volume of research has been conducted to investigate the underlying causes. However, although many contributing factors have been identified, it remains largely unpredictable, and very difficult to control. Environmental influences during the rearing period, feeding behaviour, feather-eating and individual bird differences play important roles in the expression of SFP. This paper provides a review of some of the literature on the aforementioned causes of SFP in laying hens.

The aim of this work was to study the effects of incorporating sugar beet pulp (SBP) into the diet on the development of the crop and performance of geese. A total of 480 1-day-old ganders were divided into three groups differing in the composition and mode of distribution of the diet offered from day 56 to 89. The following two diets were used: a standard diet (nitrogen-corrected apparent metabolizable energy, AMEn 11.44 MJ/kg; 160 g/kg CP) or a diet containing 10% of SBP (SBP diet; AMEn 11.47 MJ/kg; 160 g/kg CP). The swelling capacity (SC) hydration was higher for SBP than for the standard diet (3.62 v. 2.72 ml of H2O/g of dry matter at 60 min; P<0.05). In the Control group, birds were fed with a controlled time of access to a standard diet. Other birds were fed the SBP diet with a controlled time of access (SBPt group) or a controlled quantity offered (SBPq). From day 90 to 104, 88 birds/group were overfed with a mixture containing mainly corn. Body traits including volume of the crop were measured at day 89. Fatty liver weight and commercial grading were measured at d 104. Feed intake from day 56 to 89 was higher in the Control group than in the SBPt group (8097 v. 7545 g; P<0.05), feed intake in the SBPq group being intermediate (7801 g); however, live weights (LW) of the birds were similar in the three groups measured at day 89 (5746 g; P>0.05). At day 89, the volume of the crop tended to be higher in the SBPt compared with the Control group (52.8 v. 48.8 ml/kg of LW; P=0.101). After overfeeding, feed intake (12 922 g), weight gain (2412 g), LW (8170 g), fatty liver weight (875 g) and commercial grading of the fatty liver were similar (P>0.1) for all the three groups. Therefore, SBP could help adapt the digestive tract of waterfowl to high feed intake through an increase in the crop volume, but its method of use – that is, level of incorporation and mode of distribution – should continue to be investigated.

Fruit fly pests in north-eastern Brazil include several species of the genus Anastrepha and the Mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann). The most common species are Anastrepha zenildae Zucchi, the South American fruit fly Anastrepha fraterculus (Wiedemann), the West Indian fruit fly Anastrepha obliqua (Macquart) and Anastrepha sororcula Zucchi. In this study, attempts were made to mass-rear A. zenildae and A. fraterculus. The objective was to adapt local populations to laboratory conditions and develop mass-rearing systems for further utilization in integrated area-wide control programmes. Small colonies initially fed on guava fruits were developed in the laboratory. Adults were fed a diet made of brown sugar (60%), hydrolysed corn protein (26%), brewer's yeast (5%) and honey (9%). Adult diets with other combinations of ingredients were also tested. The colonies of A. zenildae and A. fraterculus achieved mating and egg hatch rates of 32 and 39%, respectively. The best diets for adults, resulting in good egg hatch, were as follows: diet B – brown sugar (60%), hydrolysed corn protein (26%), brewer's yeast (5%) and honey (5%); diet C – hydrolysed corn protein and white sugar (1:3); and diet D – soybean protein and white sugar (1:3). The best larval diet was based on 18% sugarcane bagasse and 9% protein. Adult mortality during the first 15 days was still high, over 50%. Adult recovery from pupae was over 70%. The best oviposition substrate was an agar-coated glass bottle. Mating compatibility was highest for A. fraterculus from the state of São Paulo. Mating between A. fraterculus and A. zenildae yielded no viable eggs.

The effectiveness of rearing fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) for parasitoid production and pest control need to be improved. In these studies, the effects of dietary protein ingredients on the biological parameters of the peach fruit fly Bactrocerazonata (Saunders) for parasitoid production were investigated. Among the various food ingredients, torula yeast and brewer's yeast were found to be more promising than Nu-Lure® and protein hydrolysate for rearing of B. zonata. To reduce the infestation of this pest in mango Mangifera indica L. orchards, biological control agents and the male annihilation technique were evaluated. Significantly fewer fruits were infested with fruit flies in the treated blocks compared with fruits in the untreated block. The field efficacy of the hymenopteran larval and pupal parasitoids Aganaspis (Trybliographa) daci (Weld) and Dirhinus giffardii Silvestri, respectively, plus the male annihilation technique in controlling fruit flies was significantly high than that of biological control agents and male annihilation as separate treatments. The release of parasitoids as agents of biological control can play a major role in the suppression of fruit fly populations and parasitoids also pose a minimal non-target risk. Furthermore, combining control tactics could be a very important aspect of an action plan for fruit fly population suppression.

In this study, the effects of yeast protein hydrolysate (YPH): sucrose proportions in the adult diet of the Ethiopian fruit fly Dacus ciliatus Loew on survival, pupal production, and endogenous lipid and protein contents were investigated. Small populations of the fly were fed diets containing various proportions of YPH and sucrose under low-humidity and high-humidity conditions. The YPH: sucrose proportions ranged from 20 to 50%. We monitored the patterns of survival, pupal production, and individual endogenous protein and lipid loads (only under high-humidity conditions) in flies maintained on various adult diets. The survival patterns of both males and females under high-humidity conditions were inversely proportional to the proportion of YPH in the diet. Mortality of some adult flies was related to the stickiness of the highly hygroscopic adult food mix. By contrast, the survival patterns of males and females maintained under low-humidity conditions were directly proportional to the proportion of YPH in the diet. Apparently, there was no effect of diet type on the number of pupae produced; on the sucrose-only diet, flies produced significantly fewer pupae. Protein content in the flies increased significantly as the proportion of protein in the diet increased, but lipid content was clearly not related to food constitution. Based on these results and recent evidence from studies in other fruit fly species, we concluded that a large amount of protein is deleterious to the fruit flies. Workers in rearing facilities should investigate and tailor different food-delivery systems, e.g. separate dishes for carbohydrates and the food mix, and reduce the amount of YPH used in industrial adult diets.

Integration of the sterile insect technique (SIT) into the area-wide management of the peach fruit fly Bactrocera zonata (Saunders) is a promising alternative to the localized use of chemical control tactics. Implementation of the SIT requires adequate numbers of sterile male insects that are produced in large mass-rearing facilities. The present study was carried out to improve the rearing methods of the peach fruit fly so as to contribute to the development of effective mass-rearing protocols. Commercially available papaya, mango, peach and guava juices were found to be equally effective as oviposition stimulants. Moreover, with respect to the fecundity and fertility of flies, water was found to be as effective as the tested fruit juices. During the first 3 weeks, 90% of the total eggs produced were collected from adult oviposition cages holding 50,000 flies. A larval diet composed of sugarcane bagasse, ground maize, sugarcane sugar, waste brewer's yeast, wheat bran, benzoic acid, nipagin and water resulted in the following values for the quality control parameters: egg hatch 85%, pupal recovery >67%, pupal weight >4.2 g, pupation >95%, adult emergence >89%, and fliers >65%. Adult emergence and flight ability were similar for pupae placed in sand and vermiculite as the pupation medium.

Oomyzus sokolowskii (Kurdjumov) is a gregarious larval–pupal parasitoid of the diamondback moth Plutella xylostella (L.). The objective of this study was to investigate the interactions between host and parasitoid by examining the effects of biotic factors such as gregariousness, host origin and stages, and female parasitoid age on the parasitism rate, developmental time, the number of offspring and the offspring sex ratio of O. sokolowskii under laboratory conditions. The percentage of parasitism and the number of parasitoids increased with the number of O. sokolowskii females. Oomyzus sokolowskii preferred fourth larval instars over other larval stages. The parasitism rate and the progeny production of O. sokolowskii decreased with parasitoid age; however, the developmental time and the sex ratio of the offspring were not significantly different. Our results confirm previous findings on larval preferences of O. sokolowskii. The study also confirmed the importance of geographical origin of the host on the performance of O. sokolowskii.

A total of 190 rabbit females were used to evaluate five feeding programmes from 9 weeks of age to the first parturition: CAL, fed ad libitum with a control diet (C: 11.0 MJ digestible energy (DE) and 114 g digestible protein (DP)/kg dry matter (DM)) until first parturition; CR, fed ad libitum with C diet until 12 weeks of age and then C diet restricted (140 g/day) until first parturition; F, fed ad libitum with a low-energy, high-fibre diet (F: 8.7 MJ DE and 88 g DP/kg DM) until first parturition; FC, fed with F diet ad libitum until 16 weeks of age, and C diet ad libitum until first parturition; FCF, fed with F diet ad libitum until 16 weeks of age, then C diet ad libitum until 20 weeks and then F diet ad libitum until first parturition. The rabbits were artificially inseminated at 18 weeks of age. CAL group had a higher mortality rate compared with the other groups between 9 and 12 weeks of age (34% v. 3%; P < 0.05) and during the last 3 weeks of first pregnancy (14% v. 3%; P < 0.05). The CAL and FC females presented higher BW and perirenal fat thickness (PFT) than CR females at 11 days of pregnancy (+0.41 kg and +0.6 mm; P < 0.05), with F females showing medium values. The type of feeding procedure did not affect the fertility rate of young females at first artificial insemination. Differences in BW disappeared at parturition, when only CAL females presented a greater PFT than CR and FC females (+0.3 mm; P < 0.05). In comparison with FCF, CAL females had smaller and thinner live born litters (−2.5 kits and −139 g, respectively; P < 0.05), with CR, F and FC females showing medium values. The low number of kits born alive for CAL females was because of their lesser total number of kits born (−1.7 kits; P < 0.05) and the greater mortality of their litters at birth (+13.9%; P < 0.05) compared with FCF females. Non-esterified fatty acid was higher in the blood of females fed C diet (CAL and CR) than in others at partum day (on average +0.15 mmol/l; P < 0.05). In conclusion, the ad libitum use of diets for lactating rabbit does throughout the rearing period could lead young rabbit females to present a higher risk of early death and smaller litter size at first parturition. Feed restriction or earlier use of suitably fibrous diets led females to achieve the critical BW and fat mass at first mating to ensure reproduction.

Objective.Rhipicephalus sanguineus is the most widespread tick in the world and a vector of many pathogens infecting dogs and humans. To date, there have been no investigations on the biology of R. sanguineus under natural Mediterranean climatic conditions. Methods. The biology of R. sanguineus was studied under laboratory and natural climatic conditions in southern Italy. Several biological parameters were compared in different seasons, and their correlation with climatic data was assessed. Results. The life cycle of R. sanguineus lasted for a mean of 101·4 and 116·2 days under laboratory and environmental conditions respectively. Reproductive parameters of wild-collected females kept in the environment in May were significantly different from first-generation females maintained in September–October, and the correlation between reproductive parameters and climate data varied according to season. Conclusion. These results indicate that the Mediterranean climate affects the biology of R. sanguineus, which compensates its losses during the initial phases of its cycle in spring with high feeding and moulting rates of larvae and nymphs during summer as well as with high egg production during autumn. These results advance our knowledge of the biology of R. sanguineus and will be useful for the understanding of the eco-epidemiology of tick-borne diseases that this tick transmits.

This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of early rearing conditions on physiological, haematological and immunological responses relevant to adaptation and long-term stress in white Leghorn hens with intact beaks housed in furnished cages (FC) or conventional cages (CC) during the laying period. Pullets were cage reared (CR) or litter floor reared (FR). From 16 to 76 weeks of age, hens were housed in FC (eight hens per cage) or in CC (three hens per cage). As measures of long-term stress at the end of the laying period, adrenal reactivity was quantified by assessing corticosterone responses to adrenocorticotropin challenge, and immune response was assessed by measuring antibody responses after immunization with sheep red blood cells (SRBC) and keyhole limpet haemocyanin (KLH). Heterophil to lymphocyte (H/L) ratio was employed as an indicator of stress. Rearing conditions significantly affected anti-SRBC titres (P < 0.0001) and tended to affect H/L ratios (P = 0.07), with the highest values found in FR hens. Layer housing affected H/L ratio (P < 0.01); the highest ratio was found in FR birds housed in FC during the laying period. This study shows that early rearing environment affects immunological indicators that are widely used to assess stress in laying hens. However, while results on H/L ratio indicated that FR birds experienced more stress particularly when they were housed in FC during the laying period, the immune responses to SRBC in FR hens was improved, indicating the opposite. This contradiction suggests that the effects on immune response may have been associated with pathogenic load due to environmental complexity in FR and FC hens rather than stress due to rearing system or housing system per se.

Feather pecking during rearing is difficult to identify and therefore often underestimated. However, as rearing conditions will affect the behaviour of adult hens, it is important or prevent feather pecking during rearing. This paper reviews the knowledge in the scientific literature on the effect of rearing conditions on injurious pecking. Factors such as stocking density and feeding strategies during rearing are known to influence feather pecking. Minimising the differences between the rearing and laying environment via a seamless transition is likely to make a flock less prone to injurious feather pecking. This can be achieved by providing perches and substrate for foraging and dust bathing during rearing, by providing facilities (e.g. litter trays) on perforated platforms during early lay and by focussing on early access to the range.