A cross-sectional study of lactating sows in 71 commercial pig herds in England was carried out to estimate the prevalence of foot lesions and abnormal posture and investigate the associated risks. Observational data were collected on the standing posture, lesions on the hind left foot, and the pen the sow was housed in for 233 sows. The prevalence of foot lesions was 76.8% and 10.8% of lactating sows had abnormal posture. Sows housed on slatted floors during pregnancy had an associated increased risk of heel flaps but a reduced risk of toe erosion, compared with sows housed on solid concrete floors with bedding during pregnancy. There was an increased risk of abnormal posture in lactating sows housed on slatted floors during pregnancy compared with those housed on solid concrete floors with straw bedding during pregnancy. In addition, there was an increased risk of abnormal posture in lactating sows with wounds on the limbs and erosions on the toe and the heel/sole. The positive association between abnormal posture and foot lesions suggests that these lesions might be painful. Housing sows on solid floors during pregnancy might reduce the risk of abnormal posture, and certain foot lesions, in sows during lactation. However, posture is a less sensitive measure of lameness than gait, and the nature of the causal relationship between foot lesions and lameness requires further investigation.

The stress on dogs and their handlers during animal-assisted therapy in a prison programme was evaluated using questionnaires and measurement of the dogs’ saliva cortisol concentrations before and after the sessions. Their handlers were volunteers who underwent training classes with their pet dogs. Overall, the dogs did not show serious signs of stress in the programme, which was also the impression of their handlers. In most cases, the dogs’ saliva cortisol values decreased following their participation in the sessions. There was an association between the dogs’ stress levels and the handlers’ self-reported stress. In 11% of cases, the dogs were evaluated as stressed during the session, but their saliva cortisol values did not change significantly from before to after the session. Some handlers might have misconstrued their dogs’ behavioural states. Improvement of the dogs’ welfare may be achievable through giving feedback to the handlers to more accurately evaluate their dogs’ behaviours, by strengthening the selection of appropriate units and classes prior the programme, by developing a programme and handling methods less burdensome to the animals, and by enhancing the aftercare of animals when they are stressed in a session. Achievement of these goals would also strengthen the bonds between dogs and handlers, contributing to a more effective programme for clients.

Unless the benefits to society of measures to protect and improve the welfare of animals are made transparent by means of their valuation they are likely to go unrecognised and cannot easily be weighed against the costs of such measures as required, for example, by policy-makers. A simple single measure scoring system, based on the Welfare Quality® index, is used, together with a choice experiment economic valuation method, to estimate the value that people place on improvements to the welfare of different farm animal species measured on a continuous (0-100) scale. Results from using the method on a survey sample of some 300 people show that it is able to elicit apparently credible values. The survey found that 96% of respondents thought that we have a moral obligation to safeguard the welfare of animals and that over 72% were concerned about the way farm animals are treated. Estimated mean annual willingness to pay for meat from animals with improved welfare of just one point on the scale was £5.24 for beef cattle, £4.57 for pigs and £5.10 for meat chickens. Further development of the method is required to capture the total economic value of animal welfare benefits. Despite this, the method is considered a practical means for obtaining economic values that can be used in the cost-benefit appraisal of policy measures intended to improve the welfare of animals.

A computer-based model was constructed to assess enrichment materials (EMats) for intensively-farmed weaned, growing and fattening pigs on a scale from 0 to 10. This model, called RICHPIG, was constructed in order to support the further implementation of EC Directive 2001/93/EC, which states that “pigs must have permanent access to a sufficient quantity of material to enable proper investigation and manipulation activities”. This paper describes the underlying conceptual framework for assessing EMats and explains the concepts, procedures and calculation rules used for semantic modelling. A (parsimonious) weighted average calculation rule was used to calculate enrichment scores from assessment criteria scores (which specify welfare relevant material properties of EMats) and weighting factors (WFs, which specify the relative importance of the assessment criteria). In total, 30 assessment criteria were identified and classified as object design criteria (eg novelty and accessibility), behavioural elements (eg nose, root, chew), biological functions (explore and forage), manipulations (ie object-directed behaviours), other (non-manipulative) consequences (eg aggression and stress) and object performance criteria (eg changeability/destructibility and hygiene). WFs were calculated from a systematic analysis of 573 scientific statements collected in the database, using 11 so-called weighting categories (Wcat, ie scientific paradigms to assess welfare such as the study of natural behaviour, consumer demand studies and stress-physiology) to assign Wcat level scores (which indicate the intensity, duration and incidence of a welfare impact) to the assessment criteria. The main advantages of the RICHPIG model are that it is based explicitly on available scientific information, that it has an explicitly formulated conceptual framework, is transparent, disputable, upgradeable, robust and reasonably in accordance with expert opinion. Major scope for improvements exist in the form of the need for further upgrading with new knowledge, empirical validation and (further) implementation in political decision-making processes.

Previous studies have shown that the analysis of high frequency stress calls in pigs can serve as a reliable tool in welfare research. Our study focuses on the classification of three different classes of piglet vocalisation: grunting, squealing and screaming. In a castration experiment (Experiment 1), 3,285 vocalisations from 42 piglets were analysed for 21 different vocal characteristics. A first discriminant function for the three vocal types was derived from recordings made under laboratory-like conditions. A second discriminant function was derived from non-calibrated measurements of the relative sound energy content. These two classifications revealed 86.7% identical assignments of vocalisations to the three vocal types. The second classification allowed for vocalisation analyses of animals under on-farm recording conditions. This technique was validated during an open-field test (Experiment 2) with piglets housed in two different farrowing systems (11,089 vocalisations, 22 piglets). The proportion of screaming sounds was lower for piglets from a group-farrowing (GF) system than for those from a single-farrowing (SF) system. Sound properties showed differences between as well as within the two experiments for all three vocal types. Vocalisations from SF and GF piglets differed significantly in the duration, energy, and relative maximum levels. We conclude that vocal-type analysis can not only help to identify vocalisation indicative of pain during castration, but also vocal behaviour changes indicating separation stress during the open-field test. Therefore, classification of vocal types can add valuable information to studies that use pig vocalisation for the assessment of welfare.

In most European countries broilers are currently caught manually: broilers are caught by the leg, inverted and carried by a catcher with 3–4 birds in each hand. This method of catching broiler chickens is a welfare concern as it causes severe stress to the birds. A possible alternative to manual catching may be mechanical catching. The aim of this study was to compare the level of stress and injuries of broilers caught manually or with a harvesting machine (CIEMME Super Apollo L harvester) under commercial conditions. The results indicated that there was no significant difference in plasma corticosterone concentrations and duration of tonic immobility, which suggested that mechanically caught broilers were no more stressed than those caught manually. At the end of the catching process, mechanically caught broilers had even lower plasma corticosterone concentrations and shorter durations of tonic immobility, indicating that at this moment these broilers were less stressed than the manually caught birds. The incidence of wing haemorrhages was also reduced for broilers caught mechanically; however, there was no significant difference in the incidence of haemorrhages in the breast or legs between the two catching methods. As injuries are associated with pain and stress, this parameter is important not only for the welfare of the birds but also for product quality and the subsequent financial return. Therefore, it can be concluded that the use of the mechanical harvesting machine, CIEMME Super Apollo L, appears to be a good alternative to manual catching. Nevertheless, some aspects of mechanical catching require further improvement.

Since 1999, animal welfare auditing programmes that utilise five numerically scored core criteria have been used successfully by major restaurant chains to monitor animal welfare in slaughter plants. They had to achieve specific numerical scores in order to remain on the approved supplier list. The five numerically scored criteria (critical control points) are: i) Percentage of animals that fall down during handling; ii) Percentage of animals moved with an electric prod; iii) Percentage of cattle or pigs vocalising in the stunning box or restrainer; iv) Percentage of animals stunned effectively with one application of the stunner; and v) Percentage rendered insensible when hoisted to the bleed rail (has to be 100% to pass the audit). Audit data collected in 2010 by two restaurant companies in 30 beef plants, indicated that 77% of them effectively stunned 100 to 99% of the cattle with a single shot from a captive-bolt gun. All 30 plants passed the audit, which required 95% of more of the cattle stunned with one shot. In eight pork plants with electric stunning, the tongs were placed correctly on 100% of the pigs held in a V-conveyor restrainer. In 95% of the beef plants, and 86% of 25 pork plants, 0% of the animals fell during unloading, movement in the lairage and during handling in the stunning area. In 81% of the beef plants and 77% of the pork plants, 5% or less of the animals were moved with an electric prod. The percentage of cattle vocalising in the stun box and during movement into the stun box was 3% or less in all the plants except one. All scores are per animal, an animal is stunned correctly in the first shot, or not stunned correctly. It either vocalises or it is silent. A passing score is required on all five of the numerically scored core criteria. Due to financial and time constrains, the same auditor assesses both welfare and food safety. Workshops for training auditors last 1.5 days and include two plant visits.

The degree of domestication of an animal is difficult to estimate because the animal's phenotype depends not only on its genetic make-up but also on its experiences during ontogeny. In addition, comparisons between wild and domestic animals suffer from the lack of a proper reference population. In this study, we compared the offspring of silver foxes (Vulpes vulpes) that had been selected specifically for tameness for more than 30 generations (NOVO) with normal Finnish farmed foxes (FIN) and with reciprocal hybrids between these two strains. All animals were housed under standard farm conditions without any extra handling. The NOVO foxes had higher domestication indexes and lower fearfulness scores than the FIN foxes, with their hybrids showing values in between. Almost all NOVO foxes started eating in the presence of a human and took a titbit from him, whereas only a few FIN foxes did so. Open field and urinary cortisol tests failed to discriminate between the genotypes. The NOVO cubs had lower levels of serum cortisol both before and after a stressful situation or ACTH injection and showed lower stress-induced hyperthermia than the FIN cubs, with the hybrids showing results in between. NOVO foxes can be used as a reference when developing and validating behavioural tests for use in the selection of less fearful silver foxes. The observed low fear levels and low stress hormone levels suggest better welfare in the NOVO foxes under standard farm conditions.

Keel-bone damage and foot injuries have a negative impact on welfare in laying hens. The extent of the problems in Danish commercial flocks of layers is unknown. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the current prevalence of keel-bone damage and foot injuries in Danish commercial flocks of laying hens and to investigate the effects of production system, housing system, hybrid and age. The occurrences of keel-bone damage, hyperkeratosis and missing toes were higher at 62 compared to 32 weeks of age, while the reverse was found for toe wounds, foot-pad lesions and bumble feet. There was no difference between barn and organic production systems in the risk of having keel-bone fractures and foot injuries, except that barn hens were more likely to have foot-pad lesions than organic hens (32 weeks: 16.1 vs 3.1%). Hens in multi-tiered systems were more likely to have keel-bone fractures compared to hens in single-tiered systems (62 weeks: 11.6 vs 4.9%). Of the four hybrids, Lohmann Brown Lite had a higher risk of keel-bone fractures, whereas bumble feet were found more frequently in Lohmann LSL Keel-bone damage and foot injuries are less common in Danish non-cage systems compared to most of the reporting presently available from other countries. We suggest transnational studies, aimed at identifying the causal factors of this discrepancy, to increase existing knowledge on how to reduce incidences of keel-bone damage and foot injuries.

Our ability to assess pain in animals in clinical situations is slowly developing, but remains very limited. In order to develop appropriate pain scoring schemes, numerous practical problems need to be overcome. In addition, we need to appraise realistically our current poor state of knowledge. Development of new scoring systems must be coupled with the increased education and training of those responsible for pain management, so that both the assessment and the alleviation of pain are steadily improved.

While it has the potential to deliver important human benefits, animal-based pain research raises ethical questions, because it involves inducing pain in sentient beings. Ethical decision-making, connected with this variety of research, requires informed harm-benefit analysis, and the aim of this paper is to provide information for such an analysis. We present an overview of the different models and their consequences for animal welfare, showing that, of the many animal models available, most have a considerable welfare impact on the animal. While the usual approach to pain control through administration of analgesic substances is usually unsuitable in pain research, refinement remains an option, both within the experimental protocol and in general husbandry and handling. Drawing on the overview, we develop a discussion of the ethical acceptability of animal-based pain research against the background of the kinds of harm done to the animals involved, the potential for refinement, and the expected benefits of the research.

For over 25 years, European badgers (Meles meles) have been subject to culling in Britain in attempts to limit the spread of tuberculosis (TB) to cattle. As part of a far-reaching evaluation of the effectiveness and acceptability of badger culling as a TB control measure, this paper assesses one aspect of the welfare of badger populations subjected to culling: the risk of badgers confined to cage traps prior to despatch becoming injured as a result of rubbing or biting on the cage. In a large-scale field trial, 88% of badgers received no detectable injuries as a result of being confined in the trap. Of those that were injured, 72% received only minor skin abrasions. A minority (1.8% of the total) acquired damage to the teeth or jaws that may have caused serious pain. Although trap rounds were commenced in the early morning, badgers were no more likely to sustain injuries when they remained in traps until later in the day. Coating of cage traps, intended to give the wire mesh a smoother surface, was associated with a reduction in the incidence of minor skin abrasions, although it may have slightly increased the frequency of less common but more serious abrasions. Modification of the door design reduced tooth damage. Traps will be further modified if appropriate. However, all aspects of the conduct of trapping operations must balance badger welfare with concerns for the health and safety of field staff.

This study measured the amount of time 17 chimpanzee infants devoted to stereotyped body rocking in a variety of nursery settings. Nine females and eight males ranging in age from three weeks to four years were included in the study. Some infants were placed in a peer group at a very early age and were given minimal human contact, while others were provided with more frequent human interaction and were placed in peer groups at varying ages. During the course of the study, infants were housed with varying numbers of chimpanzee companions and some were also provided with a canine companion. Four hundred and thirty-three hours of data were collected. Infants showed a decline in rocking over age and rocked less in the presence of a canine companion. Infant gender, the amount of human contact received at an early age, the age placed with at least one peer companion, and the current number of chimpanzee companions did not affect the time devoted to body rocking. These findings demonstrate that animal managers should look beyond conspecific stimulation for improving the social environment and overall welfare of chimpanzees. These results are further discussed in a framework of identifying possible strategies for minimizing rocking and promoting future behavioural competence in nursery-reared infants.

The captive environment is often barren, predictable and under-stimulating so that the behavioural needs of animals in captivity may be thwarted. The welfare of animals may be compromised, which can result in the expression of abnormal behaviours. Stereotypic behaviours, such as the circling or pacing behaviour observed in captive pinnipeds, may become apparent. A simple, cheap and effective method of adding complexity to a captive environment is the use of environmental enrichment techniques. A number of enrichment devices were used in this study, focusing primarily on occupying more time in feeding/foraging behaviours of common seals, Phoca vitulina. The performance of stereotypic circling behaviour was significantly reduced during the enrichment period, suggesting it had improved the welfare of all the animals in this study.

Fenn traps are widely used in New Zealand for control of small predators. Introduced stoats (Mustela erminea) pose a significant risk to many indigenous New Zealand bird species, and the Department of Conservation (DOC) has used Fenn traps to reduce their numbers over the last 20-30 years. Changes to New Zealand animal welfare legislation in 1999 focused attention on whether this trap killed quickly and consistently and, therefore, pen tests were carried out to assess their killing performance. A guideline for testing traps was developed for the National Animal Welfare Advisory Committee, and to meet the guidelines kill traps must render all ten test animals irreversibly unconscious within three minutes. Testing is stopped as soon as three animals fail the criterion. New Mk IV and MkVI and used MkVI Fenn traps were tested. With the exception of one stoat captured in a new MkVI trap, all stoats remained conscious until euthanased at 5 minutes, and consequently only three stoats were used in each test. In response to these results, a new series of traps was developed (DOC 150, 200, and 250). These killed all 10 test animals, with all rendered irreversibly unconscious within 3 minutes and most unconscious in less than 20 seconds. The new DOC traps have also been tested for their efficacy at killing other small mammals including rats, ferrets, and hedgehogs, which are often captured as non-target species. As these new traps replace Fenn traps in Department of Conservation stoat control operations, significant improvements in the welfare of trapped stoats should result.

Russell and Burch's Three Rs principle of replacement, reduction and refinement offers a useful concept for the scientific and ethical evaluation of the use of animals in scientific procedures. Replacement, reduction and refinement are often considered separately, but when applied, one of the Three Rs may have a positive or negative effect on one or both of the other Rs. This paper explores the interplay between the Three Rs and provides examples where the Three Rs have a positive interaction and where they are in conflict with each other. For example, all Three Rs positively interact in the use of cell cultures, but validation studies of replacement techniques may initially increase the numbers of animals used; therefore replacement and reduction are in conflict. Several models of cost-benefit analyses, used by animal ethics committees to justify or reject animal experimentation, contain elements such as quality and significance of the research, the credibility of the research group and the discomfort caused to the animals. Although these models consider the Three Rs, each R is considered independently of the others. Consequently, moral dilemmas may arise when reviewing proposals in which the Three Rs conflict. Currently there is no legal guidance relating to the prioritisation of the Three Rs, but guidance is required to facilitate their use. For example, does a significant reduction in animal numbers justify increased individual suffering? Moral justifications deserve more attention when considering the Three Rs in general, and when considering the application of one or more Rs to a procedure, to a protocol, or to the wider research programme.

The stability and uniformity of the following gas mixtures: 90% argon; 85% argon and 15% carbon dioxide (CO2); 70% argon and 30% CO2; 98% nitrogen (N2); 92% N2 and 8% CO2; 90% N2 and 10% CO2; 85% N2 and 15% CO2; 80% N2 and 20% CO2; 70% N2 and 30% CO2; and 90% CO2 by volume in atmospheric air were assessed in a commercial dip-lift stunning system when the cradle was either stationary or in motion. The gas mixtures of 90% argon, 85% argon and 15% CO2, 70% argon and 30% CO2, 85% N2 and 15% CO2, 80% N2 and 20% CO2, 70% N2 and 30% CO2 and 90% CO2 by volume in atmospheric air could be sustained in a commercial dip-lift stunning system. The stability of the gas mixtures 92% N2 and 8% CO2, and 90% N2 and 10% CO2 by volume in atmospheric air were lower than in the previous cases. On the other hand, an N2 concentration higher than 94% by volume in atmospheric air could not be sustained in the stunning system. In addition, gas mixtures of argon and CO2 showed a higher stability than gas mixtures of N2 and CO2. The uniformity at different levels inside the pit (defined as the capacity of the gas to maintain its concentration constant at different levels inside the pit) was higher in 90% argon, or argon and CO2 mixtures and N2 and CO2 mixtures than in 90% CO2. This fact ensures that for the whole time the animals are inside the pit, the same conditions are applied, which is not the case for 90% CO2.

Research synthesis, using techniques such as meta-analysis to combine the results of a number of studies, is a particularly useful technique when there are multiple studies with conflicting results, or where there may be conflicting interests, and can serve to extract the maximum information from animal experiments. The effect of conventional cages and alternative housing systems on measures of production, behaviour, physical and physiological condition in laying hens is an important question that would benefit from research synthesis. We found that statistical constraints did not allow the usual methods of meta-analysis, so as a first step towards quantitative comparison, we used a simple vote-counting approach based on the treatment means. We counted the number of papers in which conventional cages or alternative systems had a higher weighted mean for various response variables. Egg production was higher in conventional cages than in alternative systems, though this effect was probably mostly confined to the comparison with multi-level indoor systems. Bones were stronger from hens kept in alternative systems than those kept in conventional cages. We confirmed previous reviews that birds show more comfort behaviour and possibly dustbathing (or vacuum dustbathing) behaviour in alternative systems, but aggressive pecking did not differ between systems. Perhaps surprisingly, mortality, feather pecking and body wounds were not found to differ between systems. The latter findings suggest that the chance of a mortality or cannibalism outbreak may be no greater in alternative systems than in cage systems, but it should be noted that our analysis did not consider the magnitude of the difference in mortality. In conclusion, the meta-comparison undertaken here supports some but contradicts other conclusions reached in qualitative reviews.

The effects on rabbits of four potential transport-related stressors (heat [HS], cold [CS], noise [NS] and mixing with unfamiliar animals [MS]) on certain physiological and meat quality parameters were studied. These are factors which may act to reduce the welfare of rabbits during their transport to the slaughterhouse. The rabbits were exposed to each potential stressor for four and a half hours prior to slaughter. HS groups showed the highest plasma concentrations of cortisol, lactate and glucose and greater packed cell volume (PCV) and osmolarity than the control group, and the meat exhibited a low initial pH as a direct consequence of lactic acid accumulation. The rabbits exposed to cold (CS) and noise (NS) showed physiological responses to the potential stressor, although to a lesser degree than rabbits exposed to heat. Cold stressed rabbits showed increased levels of creatine kinase (CK) and a higher PCV as well as decreased muscle glycogen concentration compared to the control. Rabbits exposed to noise showed muscular damage as demonstrated by increased levels of CK and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity in the blood and a high final pH in meat. Mixing unfamiliar rabbits (MS) lead to higher CK activity, lower lactate and glucose concentration and the meat pH was slightly higher than the control group. In conclusion, these results suggested that rabbits exposed to heat were the most affected out of all three groups, although cold, noise and mixing with unfamiliar rabbits also had a detrimental effect on physiological and meat quality parameters.

Empathy towards animals and beliefs in animal-human continuity appear to play an important role in shaping the human-animal relationship and in determining the way animals are treated and cared for. Veterinary medicine plays a central role in animal welfare and has been recognised as a highly caring profession, especially in companion animal practice: however, a number of studies have indicated that veterinary students show a decline in empathy towards animals and an increasing tendency to see them in Cartesian terms as they progress through veterinary education. In the present study we used the Animal Empathy Scale and the Human-Animal Continuity Scale to investigate empathy towards animals and beliefs in animal-human continuity in a sample of first-year (n = 131) and final-year (n = 158) veterinary students of the University of Milan, Italy. Results revealed a difference in empathy towards animals, with first-year students scoring significantly higher than those at the end of their academic training. This variation in empathy over time emerged in both male and female students, however females always had higher empathy scores than males. Moreover, veterinary students at the end of their course reported a more instrumental attitude toward animals, more pronounced in males than in females. Similarly, there was a difference in the perception of continuity between humans and animals which was more evident in males, with first-year students scoring higher than fifth-year students in some items. Results are discussed in relation to previous studies carried out in other countries and, given the importance of empathy in the veterinary profession, potential reasons underlying its apparent decrease are considered.