Vitamin E and selenium have been reported to improve immune function across a range of species. Ewes lambing on poor-quality dry pasture in autumn in Western Australia are at risk of being deficient in vitamin E and selenium at lambing thus predisposing their lambs to deficiencies and increasing the risk of infection and disease. This study tested the hypotheses that (i) supplementation of autumn-lambing ewes with vitamin E plus selenium in late gestation will increase the concentrations of vitamin E and selenium in plasma in the ewe and lamb and (ii) that the increased concentrations of vitamin E and selenium in plasma in the lambs will improve their innate and adaptive immune responses and thus survival. Pregnant Merino ewes were divided into a control group (n=58) which received no supplementation or a group supplemented with vitamin E plus selenium (n=55). On days 111, 125 and 140 of pregnancy ewes in the vitamin E plus selenium group were given 4 g all-rac-α-tocopherol acetate orally. On day 111 the ewes were also given 60 mg of selenium as barium selenate by subcutaneous injection. The concentrations of α-tocopherol and selenium were measured in ewes and/or lambs from day 111 of pregnancy to 14 weeks of age±10 days (weaning). Immune function of the lamb was assessed by analysing the numbers and phagocytic capacities of monocytes and polymorphonuclear leucocytes and plasma IgG and anti-tetanus toxoid antibody concentrations between birth and 14 weeks of age±10 days. Maternal supplementation with vitamin E plus selenium increased the concentration of α-tocopherol in plasma (1.13 v. 0.67 mg/l; P<0.001) and selenium in whole blood (0.12 v. 0.07 mg/l; P<0.01) of the ewes at lambing compared with controls. Supplementation also increased the concentration of α-tocopherol (0.14 v. 0.08 mg/l; P<0.001) and selenium (0.08 v. 0.05 mg/l; P<0.01) in lambs at birth compared with controls. There was no significant effect of supplementation on immune function or survival in the lambs.

In order to avoid the decrease in the numbers of wild red-legged partridge, Alectoris rufa, observed in several areas, the most appropiate solution is to repopulate using animals from game farms. The nesting place chosen by 30 pairs of red-legged partridge in captivity was studied. There were five different nest types combined in groups of three in 30 cages. Type A nest: made with natural bush plants tied together at one end and placed invertedly forming a cone. Type B: made with the same natural bush plants as the previous type but placed over an internal wire structure and having preformed entrances. Type C: a wooden structure in the form of a roof with two slopes. Type D: similar to the type C but on one of the laterals the opaque material only covers the upper half, and a plastic mesh covers the lower half. Type E: a wooden square box covered with an inclined plank of opaque and waterproof material. Our study shows that the type A nest received significantly (P < 0·05) more eggs than the others, possibly because this type of nest allowed for better vigilance and a better sense of protection for the animals. Type E nest was the second most preferred. In this type, the partridge was able to monitor the surroundings through the space between the walls and the roof and this space could be used as an escape route. From a production and industrial perspective, type E has some advantages over type A, being easy to build, clean and disinfect, and allowing the birds to see through the nest.

Haemoglobin types of two Indian breeds of sheep were related to ram and ewe fertility and lamb mortality. Rams with Hb B type had a significantly higher number of lambs born to ewes mated to them. Ewe fertility and lamb mortality were better, but not significantly so, in animals with Hb B type.

As a result of more intensive rearing and specialization in modern production, pigs are often moved to a new location. In addition, mixing of previously unacquainted pigs usually occurs following transportation to new facilities. Mixing of pigs results in agonistic behaviour (Ewbank, 1976) eliciting social stress (Arnone and Dantzer, 1980) that may produce gastro-intestinal disturbances which adversely affect pig performance.

A short-term selection experiment was undertaken to estimate the realized heritability for birth weight in mice.

A cross of two strains was used as a base population, from which heaviest and lightest birth weight individuals were selected to initiate an up (JU) and a down (JD) selected line. Selection was applied on a within-litter basis for six generations. By the end of the experiment, the two lines differed by 0·20 ± 0·01 g. The heritability, estimated from the regression of cumulative response on cumulative selection differentials and adjusted to that of individual values, was 0·14 ± 0·02. Six-week body weight, averaged over both sexes, was higher in line JU than in JD by 1·0 ± 0·3 g at generation 6. Litter size was higher in line JU in every generation, the regression of the divergence between JU and JD on generation number being 0·13 ± 0·03.

Data from 265 female goats (does) from seven herds in Year 1 and 130 does from four herds in Year 2 were analysed using a general linear interactive model for factors affecting gestation period (GP), litter size (LS) and birth weight (BW) of offspring (kids). Gestation period could be described by the regression equation GP = α – 0·890LS –1·072S where S is the proportion of male kids in the litter and the constant (a) depends on breed and herd and was 154·240 (s.e., 0·843) days for British Saanen does in Herd 1. The model established for LS was a quadratic regressional relationship LS = a – 0·000103 (MW - 60))2 + 0-0172 (MW -60) where MW was live weight of the doe at mating and a at MW = 60 kg depends on herd and period of kidding. For early-kidding does in Herd 1 a was 2·277 (s.e., 0·090) kids. The expression BW —α 0·363LS + 0·057P is a simplified multiple regressional form involving BW, LS and parity (P) where a varies according to breed, herd and age of the doe. The estimate of a for kids from British Saanen, 1-year-old does in Herd 1 was 3·879 (s.e., 0·632) kg.

Sheep of a line selected on an index to increase carcass lean content at 150 days of age (selected (S); no. = 90), and an unselected control line (control (C); no. = 90), were given ad libitum foods of three different protein concentrations (192, 141 and 120 g/kg dry matter). Growth was measured from about 21 to 114 kg live weight. The carcasses of each line were analysed for lean, fat and bone at three widely varying weights in both males and females. Level of protein did not affect the extent to which S was superior to C in the content of fat (0.86 as much) or lean (1.08 as much) in the carcass. The fat concentration of the carcass increased, and the lean concentration decreased, as dietary protein concentration was reduced (P < 0.01). On the highest level of protein used, the S line grew 1.17 times as fast and was 1.10 times as efficient compared with C. The extent to which growth rate in S exceeded that in C was greater on the highest level of protein used (92.3 g/day) than on the two lower protein diets (26.4 g/day). The difference of 65.9 (s.e. 18.4) g/day was significant (P < 0.01). On the diet of highest protein concentration, growth was well described by a Gompertz function. The S line had an estimated maximum growth rate 1.25 times that of the C when averaged across males and females. A Spillman function was used to describe weight in terms of cumulative intake. It worked well for all three levels of dietary protein concentration. S sheep performed better than unselected sheep on foods differing in protein concentration and over a wide range of live weights, suggesting benefits are likely within the diverse farming environments found in practice.

Measurements were made of the speed of ultrasound transmission through sites in the hind limbs of 125 pedigree Hereford bulls. Twenty-five of these were measured twice at weekly intervals on three occasions prior to slaughter to assess the short-term repeatability of the measurement and the magnitude of long-term changes. Analyses of variance of the means of the measurements at two sites showed that the residual standard deviation (within animal and occasion), was 0·01 (μs/cm. There was a decrease of 0·01 (μs/cm in the group mean over the 2-week period and a significant time × animal interaction. This showed that lipid concentration at the measurement sites decreased as the bulls adjusted to their new surroundings following delivery to the Institute's farm. When a separate group of 64 bulls was measured at the farm at which they were being reared an increase in the group mean of 0·006 iμs/cm was recorded over a 30·day period, indicating an increase in lipid concentration. The residual standard deviation for that group was 0·007 μs/cm, similar to that recorded above.

The mean of the reciprocal speeds at the two sites, when used in a multiple regression with live mass, yielded a residual standard deviation in predicted proportion of lean in the side of 20·0 g/kg and in total fat proportion of 22·1 g/kg. These corresponded to population standard deviations, adjusted for live mass, of 29·7 and 34·1 g/kg respectively. It was concluded that the measurement of ultrasound speed in the hind limbs of Hereford bulls could be used to predict lean proportion in the carcass. The method does not require subjective interpretation and responds equally to subcutaneous and interand intra-muscular fat.

The concentrations of dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), fat and ash were determined for 18 singleton red deer foetuses of known gestational ages within the range 72 to 224 days (term = 233 days) and for their associated placentae and empty uteri. In addition, concentrations of Ca, P, Mg, Na and K were determined for the foetuses. The amniotic and allantoic fluids were analysed for DM, CP and ash content.

Concentrations of all measured components in the foetal fluids increased with foetal age (except for amniotic ash concentration which decreased) and linear regressions were fitted. Concentrations in the empty uterus remained constant. Given the equations previously fitted relating the weight of these tissues t o foetal age, the weights of their chemical constituents could then be calculated at various stages.

Concentrations of all measured components in the foetus increased with foetal age (except for foetal K which remained constant). In the placenta, concentrations of DM and CP tended to increase while those of fat and ash decreased. The actual weights of the chemical constituents were related to both foetal age and foetal weight by further regression analysis in the form of extended Gompertz equations.

Estimates are made of the daily rates of accretion of chemical components in the foetus and adnexa and these provide data against which to assess the additional nutrient demands of pregnancy in the red deer hind.

The aim of this study was to test how genetic gain for a trait not measured on the nucleus animals could be obtained within a genomic selection pig breeding scheme. Stochastic simulation of a pig breeding program including a breeding nucleus, a multiplier to produce and disseminate semen and a production tier where phenotypes were recorded was performed to test (1) the effect of obtaining phenotypic records from offspring of nucleus animals, (2) the effect of genotyping production animals with records for the purpose of including them in a genomic selection reference population or (3) to combine the two approaches. None of the tested strategies affected genetic gain if the trait under investigation had a low economic value of only 10% of the total breeding goal. When the relative economic weight was increased to 30%, a combination of the methods was most effective. Obtaining records from offspring of already genotyped nucleus animals had more impact on genetic gain than to genotype more distant relatives with phenotypes to update the reference population. When records cannot be obtained from offspring of nucleus animals, genotyping of production animals could be considered for traits with high economic importance.

In general, one animal is considered dominant over another animal if it has won more fights than its opponent. Whether this difference in won and lost fights is significant is neglected in most studies. Thus, the present study evaluates the impact of two different calculation methods for dyadic interactions with a significant asymmetric outcome on the results of social network analysis regarding agonistic interactions of pigs in three different mixing events (weaned piglets, fattening pigs and gilts). Directly after mixing, all animals were video recorded for 17 (fattening pigs, gilts) and 28 h (weaned piglets), documenting agonistic interactions. Two calculation methods for significant dyads, that is, dyadic interactions with a clear dominant subordinate relationship in which one animal has won significantly more fights than its encounter, were proposed: pen individual limits were calculated by a sign test considering the differences of won and lost fights of all dyadic interactions in each pen; dyad individual limits were determined by a one-sided sign test for each individual dyad. For all data sets (ALL, including all dyadic interactions; PEN or DYAD, including only significant dyads according to pen or dyad individual limits), networks were built based on the information of initiator and receiver with the pigs as nodes and the edges between them illustrating attacks. General network parameters describing the whole network structure and centrality parameters describing the position of each animal in the network were calculated. Both pen and dyad individual limits revealed only a small percentage of significant dyads for weaned piglets (12.4% or 8.8%), fattening pigs (4.2% or 0.6%) and gilts (3.6% or 0.4%). The comparison between the data sets revealed only high Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients (rS) for the density, that is, percentage of possible edges that were actually present in the network, whereas the centrality parameters showed only moderate rS values (0.37 to 0.75). Thus, the rank order of the animals changed due to the exclusion of insignificant dyads, which shows that the results obtained from social network analysis are clearly influenced if insignificant dyads are excluded from the analyses. Due to the fact that the pen individual limits consider the overall level of agonistic interactions within each pen, this calculation method should be preferred over the dyad individual limits. Otherwise, too many animals in the group became isolated nodes with zero centrality for which no statement about their position within the network can be made.

Purebred lambs from three breeds (East Friesland, Oxford and Texel) were fed to appetite and treated with recombinant DNA-derived bovine somatotropin (BST) at 0·05, 0·10 or 0·20 mg/kg per day or a placebo between 19 and 27 weeks of age.

BST maintained growth over the later stages of treatment but did not affect average daily live-weight gain over the whole treatment period. Food intake was decreased and food conversion efficiency was improved by BST treatment. However, carcass weight and killing-out proportion were decreased by BST treatment in all breeds. Consistent breed differences were observed. Oxford lambs had higher live weights and carcass weights than the other breeds but no breed × treatment interactions were apparent. Ultrasonic backfat depth (mean of measurements at 13th rib and 3rd lumbar vertebra) was reduced by BST treatment in the Oxford (the fattest) and Texel lambs but not in the East Frieslands (the leanest). Ultrasonic muscle depth was not affected by BST; East Friesland lambs had considerably smaller muscle depth than the other breeds.

In the loin joint, BST decreased fat cover and subcutaneous fat proportion and increased longissimus dorsi proportion. There were also marked breed differences with Oxfords fatter than the other breeds. BST treatment did not affect any of the meat quality indicators but some differences between breeds were apparent in ultimate pH and colour of the muscle. Fatty acid composition of the subcutaneous fat was affected by breed but not by BST. East Friesland lambs had higher concentrations of unsaturated and branched chain fatty acids than the other breeds.

A mammogenic response (increased mammary development and some secretory activity) to BST was observed in some female East Friesland and Texel lambs but not in Oxford lambs.

Availability of high-density single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping platforms provided unprecedented opportunities to enhance breeding programmes in livestock, poultry and plant species, and to better understand the genetic basis of complex traits. Using this genomic information, genomic breeding values (GEBVs), which are more accurate than conventional breeding values. The superiority of genomic selection is possible only when high-density SNP panels are used to track genes and QTLs affecting the trait. Unfortunately, even with the continuous decrease in genotyping costs, only a small fraction of the population has been genotyped with these high-density panels. It is often the case that a larger portion of the population is genotyped with low-density and low-cost SNP panels and then imputed to a higher density. Accuracy of SNP genotype imputation tends to be high when minimum requirements are met. Nevertheless, a certain rate of genotype imputation errors is unavoidable. Thus, it is reasonable to assume that the accuracy of GEBVs will be affected by imputation errors; especially, their cumulative effects over time. To evaluate the impact of multi-generational selection on the accuracy of SNP genotypes imputation and the reliability of resulting GEBVs, a simulation was carried out under varying updating of the reference population, distance between the reference and testing sets, and the approach used for the estimation of GEBVs. Using fixed reference populations, imputation accuracy decayed by about 0.5% per generation. In fact, after 25 generations, the accuracy was only 7% lower than the first generation. When the reference population was updated by either 1% or 5% of the top animals in the previous generations, decay of imputation accuracy was substantially reduced. These results indicate that low-density panels are useful, especially when the generational interval between reference and testing population is small. As the generational interval increases, the imputation accuracies decay, although not at an alarming rate. In absence of updating of the reference population, accuracy of GEBVs decays substantially in one or two generations at the rate of 20% to 25% per generation. When the reference population is updated by 1% or 5% every generation, the decay in accuracy was 8% to 11% after seven generations using true and imputed genotypes. These results indicate that imputed genotypes provide a viable alternative, even after several generations, as long the reference and training populations are appropriately updated to reflect the genetic change in the population.

Experiments were conducted to determine the effects of Newcastle disease on chicken fat metabolism. Thirty black-bone chickens were infected intraocularly with the Newcastle disease virus (NDV). Six birds were killed at 0, 12, 24, 48 and 72 h post infection, respectively. Results showed that the NDV infection decreased concentration of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and increased concentrations of total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in the plasma. Concentrations of triglycerides and free fatty acid were decreased after their initial increase. NDV infection also dramatically raised the activities of lipoprotein lipase (LPL), hepatic lipase and lipases in the serum. Furthermore, PCR results showed that the incipient infection up-regulated mRNA expression of LPL, adipose triglyceride lipase and nuclear factor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα), but down-regulated them at later stage. Similarly, mRNA expression of fatty acid synthase, acetyl-CoA carboxylase and nuclear factor PPARγ, fatty acid transport protein 1 (FATP1), and 4(FATP4) decreased, whereas fatty acid translocase and fatty acid-binding protein increased initially. Data from Western blotting analysis showed that the changes in protein levels were consistent with mRNA expression. These results indicated that fat metabolism of the chicken was affected by the NDV infection. At the beginning of NDV infection, lipogenesis was inhibited, whereas lipolysis was strengthened. After lipolysis was strengthened, fat metabolism was found to be maximally depressed.

A time series model was used to describe the daily milk yield of healthy cows in the first 48 days of lactation. A moving average (MA) model of order 1 on the first-order differences of the data was selected — the same chosen in a previous study by Deluyker et al. (1990). When the model was used to generate predicted daily yields in a second data set, for cows in which clinical ketosis had been diagnosed, it was found that significant deviations of actual yield below the daily forecast occurred from 3 days before the day of diagnosis. The model appeared to be transportable to healthy cows from another herd. Threshold values were defined to identify ailing animals by their deviation from predicted yield. However, the thresholds were not very sensitive, and required that a fairly high level of false positives be accepted (25% of a healthy herd over a 5-day period).

The aim of this study was to develop a methodology to measure sow udder conformation to use in studying the correlation between udder traits and piglet survival, health and performance. The steps in the investigation were (i) to assess the repeatability of measures, (ii) to determine if there was an important difference between the two sides of the udder, (iii) to assess the extent of variation between sows, and finally (iv) to verify if the measures differ in a systematic way over the days shortly before farrowing. A total of 24 sows were scored for six conformation traits of the udder measured twice a day, every day from the sows’ entrance into the farrowing crates until farrowing (1 to 4 days later). The data were recorded from both sides when the sow was lying and when she was standing. The measurements taken were: inter-teat distance within the same row (SAMER; mm between the adjacent teat bases); distance from the base of the teats to the abdominal midline, recorded only in a lying posture (B); distance between the teat base and the adjacent teat on the opposite row, recorded only in a standing posture (OPPR), distance from the base of the teats to the ground (FLOOR); teat length (LEN) measured from the tip to the base, and diameter (DIA) measured at the tip of the teat. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) revealed that most udder conformation traits were highly repeatable (ICC>0.8); only DIA and FLOOR had lower repeatability (ICC=0.7). Measurements did not differ by side. In general, the greatest proportion of variance occurred at the sow level. Traits changed little in the days before farrowing, except for a change 1 day before farrowing in DIA, FLOOR and OPPR. Measures which used anatomical landmarks as the reference point were more reliable than those using the floor of the pen. Udder conformation measures can be used as a reliable phenotype for further study. They can be collected on any day shortly before farrowing, and only from one side and in one posture to save time.

The aim of this work was to study the effects of incorporating sugar beet pulp (SBP) into the diet on the development of the crop and performance of geese. A total of 480 1-day-old ganders were divided into three groups differing in the composition and mode of distribution of the diet offered from day 56 to 89. The following two diets were used: a standard diet (nitrogen-corrected apparent metabolizable energy, AMEn 11.44 MJ/kg; 160 g/kg CP) or a diet containing 10% of SBP (SBP diet; AMEn 11.47 MJ/kg; 160 g/kg CP). The swelling capacity (SC) hydration was higher for SBP than for the standard diet (3.62 v. 2.72 ml of H2O/g of dry matter at 60 min; P<0.05). In the Control group, birds were fed with a controlled time of access to a standard diet. Other birds were fed the SBP diet with a controlled time of access (SBPt group) or a controlled quantity offered (SBPq). From day 90 to 104, 88 birds/group were overfed with a mixture containing mainly corn. Body traits including volume of the crop were measured at day 89. Fatty liver weight and commercial grading were measured at d 104. Feed intake from day 56 to 89 was higher in the Control group than in the SBPt group (8097 v. 7545 g; P<0.05), feed intake in the SBPq group being intermediate (7801 g); however, live weights (LW) of the birds were similar in the three groups measured at day 89 (5746 g; P>0.05). At day 89, the volume of the crop tended to be higher in the SBPt compared with the Control group (52.8 v. 48.8 ml/kg of LW; P=0.101). After overfeeding, feed intake (12 922 g), weight gain (2412 g), LW (8170 g), fatty liver weight (875 g) and commercial grading of the fatty liver were similar (P>0.1) for all the three groups. Therefore, SBP could help adapt the digestive tract of waterfowl to high feed intake through an increase in the crop volume, but its method of use – that is, level of incorporation and mode of distribution – should continue to be investigated.

The present study was designed to evaluate the effect of activin-A during the in vitro oocyte maturation (IVM) and in vitro embryo culture (IVC) on nuclear maturation, blastocyst yield and blastocyst quality of prepubertal goat oocytes. In Experiment 1, three groups of oocytes were used during the IVM of prepubertal goat oocytes to determine the optimal concentration of recombinant human activin-A added to the maturation medium. Cumulus–oocyte complexes were matured in an IVM medium containing 0, 10 and 100 ng/ml (groups A0, A10 and A100), fertilized and in vitro cultured using standard procedures. In Experiment 2, the addition of 10 ng/ml activin-A at IVM (A10A0), IVC (A0A10) or IVM+IVC (A10A10) was studied and compared with the control group (A0A0). Results of the first experiment demonstrated that the addition of activin-A yielded similar percentages of maturation (⩽71.0%) and blastocyst formation rates (⩽24.9%) than the control group (A0). Experiment 2 showed that exposure of prepubertal goat oocytes to an IVC medium containing 10 ng/ml activin-A (A0A10) significantly increased the rates of development to the blastocyst stage, as compared with the control group (A0A0) (19.5±2.21% v. 13.1±2.37%, respectively; P<0.05). With regard to the blastocyst quality, total number of cells, inner cell mass (ICM) and trophectoderm of prepubertal goat embryos produced in the presence of activin-A did not differ significantly among experimental groups. In summary, these results indicate that supplementation of the IVC medium with activin-A enhances embryo development of prepubertal goat oocytes.