Cocoa, a product consumed since 600 BC, is now a subject of increasing interest because of its antioxidant properties, which are mainly attributed to the content of flavonoids such as ( − )-epicatechin, catechin and procyanidins. Moreover, recent findings suggest a regulatory effect of cocoa on the immune cells implicated in innate and acquired immunity. Cocoa exerts regulatory activity on the secretion of inflammatory mediators from macrophages and other leucocytes in vitro. In addition, emerging data from in vivo studies support an immunomodulating effect. Long-term cocoa intake in rats affects both intestinal and systemic immune function. Studies in this line suggest that high-dose cocoa intake in young rats favours the T helper 1 (Th1) response and increases intestinal γδ T lymphocyte count, whereas the antibody-secreting response decreases. The mechanisms involved in this activity are uncertain; nonetheless, because redox-sensitive pathways control immune cell function, the action of cocoa flavonoids on modulating cell signalling and gene expression deserves investigation.

Links between nutrition and cognition are widely acknowledged. Within the context of short-term cognitive performance, carbohydrate has been the dietary component most commonly investigated. The majority of studies investigating the influence of carbohydrate on cognitive performance have employed oral glucose drink interventions followed by measures of performance on cognitive tests. More recently, studies have investigated the effect of different carbohydrates on cognitive performance rather than just pure glucose drinks. To date, studies have not been evaluated based on a standardised measure of glycaemic response, such as glycaemic load. The present review provides a critical evaluation of eight studies that have explored the relationships between food carbohydrate and cognitive performance and allow glycaemic load to be used as a basis for comparison. The key finding is that these provide insufficient evidence to support a consistent effect of glycaemic load on short-term cognitive performance. Future studies should employ consistent test methodologies and describe food interventions in more detail to facilitate meaningful comparisons and interpretations of results.

The way in which the quality of life related to health (HRQoL) is affected by the nutritional status of the patient is a subject of constant interest and permanent debate. The purpose of the present paper is to review those studies that relate HRQoL to nutritional status and examine the tools (questionnaires) that they use to investigate this relationship. A critical review of published studies was carried out via an investigation of the following databases: MEDLINE (via PubMed); EMBASE; The Cochrane Library; Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL); Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) Web of Science; Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences Literature (LILACS); Spanish Health Sciences Bibliographic Index (IBECS). The search was carried out from the earliest date possible until July 2007.The medical subject heading terms used were ‘quality of life’, ‘nutritional status’ and ‘questionnaires’. The articles had to contain at least one questionnaire that evaluated quality of life. Twenty-eight documents fulfilling the inclusion criteria were accepted, although none of them used a specific questionnaire to evaluate HRQoL related to nutritional status. However, some of them used a combination of generic questionnaires with the intention of evaluating the same. Only three studies selectively addressed the relationship between nutritional status and quality of life, this evaluation being performed not by means of specific questionnaires but by statistical analysis of data obtained via validated questionnaires.

A study was conducted in healthy elderly living independently in senior housing to assess the impact of a probiotic yoghurt supplement on small intestinal bacterial overgrowth. Twenty-three participants with positive and thirteen participants with negative hydrogen breath test were studied before and after a period of 4 weeks of probiotic yoghurt administration. Intestinal permeability, plasma endotoxin levels, phagocytic activity of leucocytes, cytokine production by monocytes and free radical response of neutrophils were determined. Intestinal permeability was similar for the two groups and was unaffected by probiotic treatment. Both plasma endotoxin levels and the basal phagocytic activity of leucocytes decreased after yoghurt intake in the two groups. Exposure of monocytes and neutrophils ex vivo led to an increased cytokine response and free radical response, respectively. The normalisation of the various cytokine responses was more apparent in the group with positive breath test. In addition, the plasma levels of lipoplysaccharide binding protein and soluble CD14, lipoplysaccharide pattern recognition receptors and surrogate markers of lipoplysaccharide permeability were diminished by the end of the study. In conclusion, probiotic administration in the elderly normalises the response to endotoxin, and modulates activation markers in blood phagocytes, and therefore may help reduce low-grade chronic inflammation.

Bowman–Birk inhibitor (BBI) from soyabeans is a naturally occurring protease inhibitor with potential anti-inflammatory and chemopreventive properties within the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). In a previous paper, we reported that significant amounts of BBI-related proteins reach the terminal ileum functionally and biologically active. We have now investigated: (a) if soyabean BBI is biotransformed by faecal microbiota which would reduce its potential colorectal chemopreventive properties and (b) the potential influence of this protease inhibitor on the modulation of faecal microbiota. In vitro incubation studies of native soyabean BBI at a physiological level (93 μm) with mixed faecal samples of pigs for 24 h at 37°C demonstrated that BBI remains active and its intrinsic trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitory activities were not significantly influenced by the enzymic or metabolic activity of faecal microbiota. Soyabean BBI did not affect the growth of the different bacterial groups studied (lactobacilli, bifidobacteria, bacteroides, coliforms, enterobacteria, clostridia and total anaerobes). It was concluded that protease inhibitory activities, intrinsically linked to the chemopreventive properties of soyabean BBI, were largely unaffected by faecal microbiota in vitro. BBI retains significance, therefore, as a bioactive compound in the human GIT.

The effects of ascorbic acid (AA), phytate and tannic acid (TA) on Fe bioavailability from Fe supplied as reconstituted ferritin were compared with FeSO4 using an in vitro digestion–Caco-2 cell model. Horse spleen apoferritin was chemically reconstituted into an animal-type ferritin (HSF) and a plant-type ferritin (P-HSF) according to the typical ratios of Fe:P found in these molecules. In the presence of AA (Fe:AA molar ratio of 1:20), significantly more Fe was absorbed from FeSO4 (about 303 %), HSF (about 454 %) and P-HSF (about 371 %) when compared with ferrous sulfate or ferritin without AA. Phytic acid (PA; Fe:PA molar ratio of 1:20) significantly reduced Fe bioavailability from FeSO4 (about 86 %), HSF (about 82 %) and P-HSF (about 93 %) relative to FeSO4 and the ferritin controls. Treatment with TA (Fe:TA molar ratio of 1:1) significantly decreased Fe bioavailability (about 97 %) from both FeSO4 and the ferritin samples. AA was able to partially reverse the negative effect of PA (Fe:PA:AA molar ratio of 1:20:20) on Fe bioavailability but did not reverse the inhibiting effect of TA (Fe:TA:AA molar ratio of 1:1:20) on Fe bioavailability from ferritin and FeSO4. Overall, there were no significant differences in bioavailable Fe between P-HSF, HSF or FeSO4. Furthermore, the addition of AA (a known promoter) or the inhibitors, PA and TA, or both, did not result in significant differences in bioavailable Fe from ferritin relative to FeSO4. The results suggest that Fe in the reconstituted ferritin molecule is easily released during in vitro digestion and interacts with known promoters and inhibitors.

Negative consumer opinion poses a potential barrier to the application of nutrigenomic intervention. The present study has aimed to determine attitudes toward genetic testing and personalised nutrition among the European public. An omnibus opinion survey of a representative sample aged 14–55+ years (n 5967) took place in France, Italy, Great Britain, Portugal, Poland and Germany during June 2005 as part of the Lipgene project. A majority of respondents (66 %) reported that they would be willing to undergo genetic testing and 27 % to follow a personalised diet. Individuals who indicated a willingness to have a genetic test for the personalising of their diets were more likely to report a history of high blood cholesterol levels, central obesity and/or high levels of stress than those who would have a test only for general interest. Those who indicated that they would not have a genetic test were more likely to be male and less likely to report having central obesity. Individuals with a history of high blood cholesterol were less likely than those who did not to worry if intervention foods contained GM ingredients. Individuals who were aware that they had health problems associated with the metabolic syndrome appeared particularly favourable toward nutrigenomic intervention. These findings are encouraging for the future application of personalised nutrition provided that policies are put in place to address public concern about how genetic information is used and held.

Integrins are transmembrane proteins that facilitate the interaction of cells with the extracellular environment. They have also been implicated in cancer progression. The effects of nutrients thought to be involved in the prevention of prostate cancer on integrin expression have not been determined. Prostate cancer cell lines representing a range of malignancy from normal (RWPE-1) to highly invasive phenotypes (22Rv1 < LNCaP < PC-3) were cultured with or without lycopene (10 nm), vitamin E (5 μm) or fish oil (100 μm) for 48 h. Growth and integrin (α2β1, αvβ3 and αvβ5) expression were assessed using Trypan Blue exclusion and monoclonal antibodies combined with flow cytometry. Vitamin E enhanced (P < 0·001) whereas fish oil reduced the growth of all the cell lines tested (P < 0·001). Lycopene had no effect on growth. All the malignant cell lines exhibited lower expression of α2β1 with the addition of lycopene to culture media. Supplemental fish oil reduced α2β1 in most invasive cell lines (LNCaP and PC-3). Each nutrient at physiological levels reduced integrins αvβ3 and αvβ5 in most invasive cell lines (PC-3). The results suggest that integrins may represent an additional target of bioactive nutrients and that the effects of nutrients may be dependent on the type of cell line used.

Lactoferrin has antimicrobial activity associated with peptide fragments lactoferricin (LFC) and lactoferrampin (LFA) released on digestion. These two fragments have been expressed in Photorhabdus luminescens as a fusion peptide linked to protein cipB. The construct cipB–LFC–LFA was tested as an alternative to antimicrobial growth promoters in pig production. Sixty piglets with an average live body weight of 5·42 (sem 0·59) kg were challenged with enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli and randomly assigned to four treatment groups fed a maize–soyabean meal diet containing either no addition (C), cipB at 100 mg/kg (C+B), cipB–LFC–LFA at 100 mg/kg (C+L) or colistin sulfate at 100 mg/kg (C+CS) for 3 weeks. Compared with C, dietary supplementation with C+L for 3 weeks increased daily weight gain by 21 %, increased recovery from diarrhoea, enhanced serum glutathione peroxidase (GPx), peroxidase (POD) and total antioxidant content (T-AOC), liver GPx, POD, superoxide dismutase and T-AOC, Fe, total Fe-binding capacity, IgA, IgG and IgM levels (P < 0·05), decreased the concentration of E. coli in the ileum, caecum and colon (P < 0·05), increased the concentration of lactobacilli and bifidobacteria in the ileum, caecum and colon (P < 0·05), and promoted development of the villus–crypt architecture of the small intestine. Growth performance was similar between C+L- and C+CS-supplemented pigs. The present results indicate that LFC–LFA is an effective alternative to the feed antibiotic CS for enhancing growth performance in piglets weaned at age 21 d.

Dietary supplements of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) containing trans-10, cis-12 CLA decrease milk fat secretion in the lactating cow and sheep, but their effects on mammary lipogenesis in the goat are less well defined. Eight lactating goats were used in two 4 × 4 Latin-square experiments with 14 d experimental periods to examine the effects of calcium salts of CLA methyl esters (CaCLA) containing trans-10, cis-12 on milk fat synthesis. Experimental treatments consisted of incremental inclusion of 0, 30, 60 or 90 g of CaCLA/d (corresponding to 7·47, 14·9 and 22·4 g/d of trans-10, cis-12 CLA) offered during the first 10 d of each experimental period that replaced maize grain in concentrates (Experiment 1) or calcium salts of palm oil fatty acids (Experiment 2). Relative to the control, inclusion of 30, 60 or 90 g CaCLA/d in the diet reduced milk fat yield by 19·8, 27·9 and 32·3 % and 17·5, 39·0 and 49·3 % in Experiments 1 and 2, respectively. Decreases in milk fat were due to reductions in the secretion of fatty acids synthesised de novo rather than the uptake of fatty acids from the peripheral circulation. Indirect comparisons with the studies in the lactating cow indicated a lower efficacy of CaCLA supplements on mammary lipogenesis in the goat. In conclusion, CaCLA in the diet inhibits milk fat synthesis in the goat, responses that are dependent on the supply of dietary fatty acids, with evidence that the caprine is less sensitive to the anti-lipogenic effects of trans-10, cis-12 CLA compared with the bovine or ovine.

Associations between birth weight and CVD in adult life are supported by experiments showing that undernutrition in fetal life programmes blood pressure. In rats, the feeding of a maternal low-protein (MLP) diet during gestation programmes hypertension. The present study aimed to assess the potential for a nutritional insult to impact across several generations. Pregnant female Wistar (F0) rats were fed a control (CON; n 10) or MLP (n 10) diet throughout gestation. At delivery all animals were fed a standard laboratory chow diet. At 10 weeks of age, F1 generation offspring were mated to produce a second generation (F2) without any further dietary change. The same procedure produced an F3 generation. Blood pressure in all generations was determined at 4, 6 and 8 weeks of age and nephron number was determined at 10 weeks of age. F1 generation MLP-exposed offspring exhibited raised (P < 0·001) systolic blood pressure (male 143 (sem 4) mmHg; female 141 (sem 4) mmHg) compared with CON animals (male 132 (sem 3) mmHg; female 134 (sem 4) mmHg). Raised blood pressure and reduced nephron number was also noted in the F2 generation (P < 0·001) and this intergenerational transmission occurred via both the maternal and paternal lines, as all three possible offspring crosses (MLP × CON, CON × MLP and MLP × MLP) were hypertensive (132 (sem 3) mmHg) compared with CON animals (CON × CON; 123 (sem 2) mmHg). No effect was noted in the F3 generation. It is concluded that fetal protein restriction may play a critical role in determining blood pressure and overall disease risk in a subsequent generation.

The aim of the present study was to investigate whether ethanol extracts of Psoralea corylifolia L. (PCE) and its active component protect against bone loss in ovariectomised rats. We screened oestrogenic activities of the main extract fractions using in vitro assays and identified bakuchiol as the most active oestrogenic component by HPLC and LC/MS, and then demonstrated that bakuchiol had strong binding affinity for oestrogen receptor (ER) α. Seventy female Sprague–Dawley rats were assigned to either a sham-operated group (n 10) or an ovariectomised group (n 60). The ovariectomised group was subdivided into six groups, each containing ten rats: vehicle group, two bakuchiol-treated groups (dose of 15 mg/kg per d or 30 mg/kg per d; ten rats for each group), two PCE-supplemented groups (0·25 % or 0·5 % extracts of diets; ten rats for each group) and a 17β-oestradiol (E2)-treated group (20 μg/kg per d). We recorded weight and feed intake every week, and killed all animals after 6 weeks. Blood was collected, and the uterus, kidneys and livers were removed. Bakuchiol has a three-fold higher binding affinity for ERα than for ERβ. Bakuchiol and PCE treatments had no uterotrophic activity even though they demonstrated oestrogenic activity in the in vitro assays. Bakuchiol and PCE treatments reduced postmenopausal bone loss by increasing alkaline phosphatase, Ca concentrations, serum E2 concentration and bone mineral density, and by decreasing the inorganic P level. The present study indicated that bakuchiol and PCE treatments could protect against bone loss.

Dietary fish oil is considered to have anti-inflammatory effects based primarily on its effects on T-cell proliferation and IL-2 secretion. Its effects on the secretion of T helper (Th) 1-type cytokines vary and few studies have examined its effects on the secretion of Th2-type cytokines. In the present study, we examined the effects of dietary fish oil on the secretion of Th1 and Th2-type cytokines by splenocytes and the mechanism by which dietary fish oil affects Th2-type cytokine secretion. Mice were fed diets supplemented with 18 % fish oil (w/w) +2 % maize oil or 20 % maize oil for 6 weeks. Spleen cells, isolated splenic T cells and accessory cells (splenocytes depleted of T cells) were stimulated with anti-CD3/anti-CD28. The secretion of interferon (IFN)-γ, TNF-α, IL-4 and IL-10 was measured by ELISA. Dietary fish oil decreased the secretion of IFN-γ and TNF-α by total splenocytes and isolated T cells. In contrast, dietary fish oil increased the secretion of IL-4 by total splenocytes but had no effect on IL-4 secretion by isolated T cells. When isolated T cells were cultured with CD11b+ cells (mainly macrophages), cells from mice fed the fish oil diet secreted more IL-4 than cells from mice fed the maize oil diet. These results demonstrate that dietary fish oil directs cytokine secretion by splenocytes towards a Th2 phenotype and that the effects of dietary fish oil on the secretion of a Th2-type cytokine are mediated by its effect on CD11b+ accessory cells.

Several reviews of behavioural studies have concluded that some foods may have beneficial effects on cognitive performance. The present review summarises findings from studies using event-related potentials to investigate the food effects on brain activity underlying cognition. Despite initial positive indications from observational studies, subsequent studies with a within-subject design have not consistently confirmed these effects. This could be due to several factors, e.g. the use of attention tests (in contrast to memory tests employed in behavioural studies) and the lack of a control condition in some instances. Future studies could benefit from measuring cognitive performance with more difficult tests that tap into cognitive domains other than attention, using an appropriately controlled cross-over design, and a more systematic variation and complete description and characterisation of the food intervention.

High prevalences of vitamin D deficiency have been reported in non-Western immigrants moving to Western countries, including Norway, but there is limited information on vitamin D status in infants born to immigrant mothers. We aimed to describe the vitamin D status and potentially correlated factors among infants aged 6 weeks and their mothers with Pakistani, Turkish or Somali background attending child health clinics in Norway. Eighty-six healthy infants and their mothers with immigrant background were recruited at the routine 6-week check-up at nine centres between 2004 and 2006. Venous or capillary blood was collected at the clinics from the mother and infant, and serum separated for analysis of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (s-25(OH)D) and intact parathyroid hormone (s-iPTH). The mean maternal s-25(OH)D was 25·8 nmol/l, with 57 % below 25 nmol/l and 15 % below 12·5 nmol/l. Of the mothers, 26 % had s-iPTH>5·7 pmol/l. For infants, mean s-25(OH)D was 41·7 nmol/l, with 47 % below 25 nmol/l and 34 % below 12·5 nmol/l. s-25(OH)D was considerably lower in the thirty-one exclusively breast-fed infants (mean 11·1 nmol/l; P < 0·0001). Use of vitamin D supplements and education showed a positive association with maternal s-25(OH)D. There was no significant association between mother's and child's s-25(OH)D, and no significant ethnic or seasonal variation in s-25(OH)D for mothers or infants. In conclusion, there is widespread vitamin D deficiency in immigrant mothers and their infants living in Norway. Exclusively breast-fed infants who did not receive vitamin D supplements had particularly severe vitamin D deficiency.

Previous studies have demonstrated that the n-3 fatty acid EPA improves insulin resistance induced by high-fat diets. The aim of the present study was to investigate the potential role of visfatin and apelin in the insulin-sensitising effects of EPA ethyl ester. The effects of EPA on muscle and adipose GLUT mRNA, as well as on liver glucokinase (GK) and glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase) activity, were investigated. Male Wistar rats fed on a standard diet or a high-fat cafeteria diet were daily treated by oral administration with EPA ethyl ester (1 g/kg) for 5 weeks. A significant decrease (P < 0·01) in white adipose tissue (WAT) visfatin mRNA levels was found in the cafeteria-fed rats, which was reversed by EPA administration (P < 0·05). Moreover, a negative relationship was observed between homeostatic model assessment (HOMA) and the visfatin:total WAT ratio. In contrast, cafeteria-diet feeding caused a significant increase (P < 0·01) in apelin mRNA in visceral WAT. EPA increased (P < 0·01) apelin gene expression, and a negative relationship between HOMA index with visceral apelin mRNA and serum apelin:total WAT ratio was also observed. EPA treatment did not induce changes in skeletal muscle GLUT1, GLUT4 or insulin receptor mRNA levels. Neither liver GK and G6Pase activity nor the GK:G6Pase ratio was modified by EPA. These data suggest that somehow the insulin-sensitising effects of EPA could be related to its stimulatory action on both visfatin and apelin gene expression in visceral fat, while changes in skeletal muscle GLUT, as well as in hepatic glucose production, are not likely to be the main contributing factors in the improvement in insulin resistance induced by EPA.

A study was conducted evaluating the effect of long-term Cu deficiency, with or without high Mn, on growth, gene expression and Cu status of beef cattle. Twenty-one Angus calves were born to cows receiving one of the following treatments: (1) 10 mg supplemental Cu/kg DM (+Cu); (2) no supplemental Cu and 2 mg Mo/kg DM ( − Cu); (3) − Cu diet plus 500 mg supplemental Mn/kg DM ( − Cu+Mn). Calves were weaned at approximately 183 d of age and individually fed throughout the growing and finishing phases. Plasma Cu was lower (P < 0·01) in − Cu calves compared with +Cu calves while high dietary Mn further depressed (P < 0·01) plasma Cu in − Cu+Mn calves v. − Cu calves. Liver Cu concentrations in +Cu calves were greater (P < 0·01) than in − Cu calves, with no differences between − Cu and − Cu+Mn calves. The daily body-weight gain of +Cu calves was greater (P < 0·01) than − Cu calves during the period from birth to weaning, but did not differ during the growing phase. − Cu+Mn calves gained less (P < 0·05) than − Cu calves during the growing phase. DM intake was lower (P < 0·01) in − Cu+Mn calves v. − Cu calves, and did not differ among +Cu and − Cu calves. The relative gene expression of cytochrome c oxidase in the liver was lower (P < 0·05) in − Cu calves compared with +Cu or − Cu+Mn calves. In conclusion, feeding a Cu − deficient diet in combination with high Mn negatively affected the growth and Cu status of beef cattle.

To assess energy balance in very sick medical patients requiring prolonged acute mechanical ventilation and its possible impact on outcome, we conducted an observational study of the first 14 d of intensive care unit (ICU) stay in thirty-eight consecutive adult patients intubated at least 7 d. Exclusive enteral nutrition (EN) was started within 24 h of ICU admission and progressively increased, in absence of gastrointestinal intolerance, to the recommended energy of 125·5 kJ/kg per d. Calculated energy balance was defined as energy delivered − resting energy expenditure estimated by a predictive method based on static and dynamic biometric parameters. Mean energy balance was − 5439 (sem 222) kJ per d. EN was interrupted 23 % of the time and situations limiting feeding administration reached 64 % of survey time. ICU mortality was 72 %. Non-survivors had higher mean energy deficit than ICU survivors (P = 0·004). Multivariate analysis identified mean energy deficit as independently associated with ICU death (P = 0·02). Higher ICU mortality was observed with higher energy deficit (P = 0·003 comparing quartiles). Using receiver operating characteristic curve analysis, the best deficit threshold for predicting ICU mortality was 5021 kJ per d. Kaplan–Meier analysis showed that patients with mean energy deficit ≧5021 kJ per d had a higher ICU mortality rate than patients with lower mean energy deficit after the 14th ICU day (P = 0·01). The study suggests that large negative energy balance seems to be an independent determinant of ICU mortality in a very sick medical population requiring prolonged acute mechanical ventilation, especially when energy deficit exceeds 5021 kJ per d.

A potassium chloride-containing salt substitute lowers blood pressure levels, but its overall acceptability has been of concern due to its potential adverse effects on food taste. In a large-scale, blinded randomised trial evaluating the comparative effects of a salt substitute (65 % sodium chloride, 25 % potassium chloride and 10 % magnesium sulphate) and a normal salt (100 % sodium chloride) on blood pressure, we collected data on the saltiness, flavour and overall acceptability of food. We performed this at baseline, 1, 6 and 12 months post-randomisation using 100 mm visual analogue scales for assessments of both home-cooked foods and a standard salty soup. The mean age of the 608 participants from rural northern China was 60 years and 56 % of them were females. In the primary analyses, the changes in the saltiness, flavour and overall acceptability of both home-cooked foods and a standard salty soup were not different between the randomised groups (all P>0·08). In the secondary analyses, weighting each of the data points according to the lengths of the respective follow-up intervals, the flavour of both home-cooked foods (mean difference = − 1·8 mm, P = 0·045) and a standard salty soup (mean difference = − 1·9 mm, P = 0·03) was slightly weaker in the salt substitute group. We conclude that salt substitution is both an effective and an acceptable means of blood pressure control. Possible small differences in flavour did not importantly deter the use of the salt substitute in this study group, although the acceptability of the salt substitute by a more general population group would need to be confirmed.

Gastric emptying, as well as intragastric meal distribution, and gastrointestinal hormones, including cholecystokinin (CCK), play an important role in appetite regulation. The evaluation of gastrointestinal factors regulating food intake is commonly performed in healthy, lean, young male participants. It has, however, been suggested that there is a marked interindividual variability in the effects of nutrient ‘preloads’ on energy intake in this group. Whether there is significant intraindividual variation in acute energy intake after a nutrient preload, and, if so, how this relates to day-to-day differences in gastric emptying and gastrointestinal hormone release, is unclear. The purpose of the present paper is to evaluate the hypothesis that energy intake after a nutrient preload would be reproducible and associated with reproducible patterns of gastric emptying, intragastric distribution and gastrointestinal hormone release. Fifteen healthy men (age 25 (sem 5) years) consumed a glucose preload (50 g glucose in 300 ml water; 815 kJ) on three occasions. Gastric emptying and intragastric meal distribution (using three-dimensional ultrasound), blood glucose, plasma insulin and CCK concentrations and appetite perceptions were evaluated over 90 min, and energy intake from a cold buffet-style meal was then quantified. Energy intake was highly reproducible within individuals between visits (intraclass correlation coefficient, ri = 0·9). Gastric emptying, intragastric meal distribution, blood glucose, plasma insulin and CCK concentrations and appetite perceptions did not differ between visits (ri>0·7 for all). In healthy males, energy intake is highly reproducible, at least in the short term, and is associated with reproducible patterns of gastric emptying, glycaemia, insulinaemia and CCK release.