Low intakes of fruit and vegetables have previously been reported in the older population of Great Britain, particularly among certain socio-demographic groups. Levels and patterns of consumption in the older population of Northern Ireland, however, remain unknown. A representative sample of 1000 members of the older population of Northern Ireland were contacted by telephone to assess average intake of all fruits and vegetables and various demographic details. Data from 426 individuals (representative of the whole population) reported a mean consumption of 4·0 (sd 1·3) and 4·1 (sd 1·3) portions of fruit and vegetables per weekday and per weekend day respectively. Regression analyses revealed greater consumption on weekdays by females (B 0·53; P < 0·01), younger individuals (B − 0·02; P = 0·01) and those living in less deprived areas (B − 0·01; P = 0·04), and greater consumption at weekends by females (B 0·54; P < 0·01) and younger individuals (B − 0·03; P = 0·01). The amount of fruit and vegetables consumed is slightly higher than that reported in older populations in Great Britain, possibly as a result of differences in farming practices and rural activities, although levels of consumption remain below current recommendations for health. Patterns of consumption are similar across the UK, and suggest that strategies to increase fruit and vegetable consumption should target males, older individuals and those living in more deprived areas.

The hypothesis that increases in the concentration of the anorectic peptide leptin may be responsible for the immune-mediated reduction in feed intake (FI) during gastrointestinal parasitism in sheep was investigated. In a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design, the first factor was age at the start of infection (5 months old v. 17 months old). The second factor was parasite infection (no infection v. administration of eighty L3 infective Trichostrongylus colubriformis larvae/kg live weight (LW) per d three times per week for 77 d). The third factor was immunosuppressive therapy with a corticosteroid (no therapy or weekly intramuscular injection of 40 mg methylprednisolone acetate/30 kg LW). Relative to their uninfected counterparts, a 20 % reduction in FI per unit LW (FI/LW; g DM/kg LW) was observed in infected non-suppressed 5-month-old lambs from 21 to 63 d post-infection (P < 0·001) but not in comparable17-month-old ewes or in corticosteroid-treated lambs or ewes (P>0·05 for all), allowing the suggestion that the anorexia was a consequence of the developing immune response. The reduction in FI/LW in 5-month-old lambs was not associated with an increase in plasma leptin concentration. Furthermore, plasma leptin concentrations were greater in corticosteroid-treated animals (P < 0·001) and in 17-month-old animals (P < 0·001), none of which displayed an infection-induced reduction in FI/LW. Plasma leptin was positively correlated with carcass fat percentage in both 5-month-old (P = 0·016) and 17-month-old (P < 0·001) animals and did not appear to provide a direct feedback mechanism that restricted energy intake. The results do not support the hypothesis that an increase in circulating leptin is directly responsible for the immune-mediated anorexia in lambs during T. colubriformis infection.

Epidemiological investigation and animal studies have shown that dietary n-3 PUFA prevent the development and progression of certain types of cancer. However, conflicting results have been reported by the few studies that focused on the effect of dietary n-3 PUFA on the development of metastases. In the present study, we investigated the metastatic dissemination of murine T lymphoma lines with different metastatic potential transplanted into mice fed a fish oil diet, compared with mice fed a maize oil diet. Transplantation of highly metastatic S11 cells into animals fed a fish oil diet induced a large lymphomatoid infiltration in the spleen, associated with an eight-fold increase in spleen weight, compared with normal animals on the same diet. In contrast, only a limited increase in spleen weight was found in animals transplanted with S11 cells while fed a maize oil diet. No significant increase in spleen weight was found in animals transplanted with low-metastatic 164T2 cells regardless of whether they were fed a fish oil or a maize oil diet. At the end of experiment, an overt cachexia was shown by animals fed a fish oil diet transplanted with S11 cells, but not by those transplanted with 164T2 cells. The particularly high pro-metastatic effect of dietary n-3 PUFA on S11 cells rules out the generalisation that dietary n-3 PUFA inhibit tumour growth and progression.

Acceleration of bone remodelling increases the risk of fragility fractures. The objective of the present study was to explore in elderly women whether a vitamin D and Ca-fortified dairy product providing about 17–25 % of the recommended intakes in vitamin D, Ca and proteins would reduce secondary hyperparathyroidism and bone remodelling in a way that may attenuate age-related bone loss in the long term. Thirty-seven institutionalised women, aged 84·8 (sd 8·1) years, with low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (5·5 (sd 1·7) ng/ml) were enrolled into a multicentre open trial to consume during 1 month two servings of soft plain cheese made of semi-skimmed milk providing daily 686 kJ (164 kcal), 2·5 μg vitamin D, 302 mg Ca and 14·2 g proteins. The primary endpoint was the change in serum carboxy terminal cross-linked telopeptide of type I collagen (CTX), selected as a marker of bone resorption. Thirty-five subjects remained compliant. Mean serum changes were: 25-hydroyvitamin D, +14·5 % (P = 0·0051); parathyroid hormone (PTH), − 12·3 % (P = 0·0011); CTX, − 7·5 % (P = 0·01); tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase isoform 5b (TRAP 5b), − 9·9 % (P < 0·0001); albumin, +6·2 % (P < 0·0001); insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I),+16·9 % (P < 0·0001); osteocalcin, +8·3 % (P = 0·0166); amino-terminal propeptide of type 1 procollagen (P1NP),+19·3 % (P = 0·0031). The present open trial suggests that fortified soft plain cheese consumed by elderly women with vitamin D insufficiency can reduce bone resorption markers by positively influencing Ca and protein economy, as expressed by decreased PTH and increased IGF-I, respectively. The rise in the bone formation marker P1NP could be explained by a protein-mediated increase in IGF-I. Thus, such a dietary intervention might uncouple, at least transiently, bone resorption from bone formation and thereby attenuate age-related bone loss.

Muscle wasting or cachexia is caused by accelerated muscle protein breakdown via the ubiquitin–proteasome complex. We investigated the effect of curcumin c3 complex (curcumin c3) on attenuation of muscle proteolysis using in vitro and in vivo models. Our in vitro data indicate that curcumin c3 as low as 0·50 μg/ml was very effective in significantly inhibiting (30 %; P < 0·05) tyrosine release from human skeletal muscle cells, which reached a maximum level of inhibition of 60 % (P < 0·05) at 2·5 μg/ml. Curcumin c3 at 2·5 μg/ml also inhibited chymotrypsin-like 20S proteasome activity in these cells by 25 % (P < 0·05). For in vivo studies, we induced progressive muscle wasting in mice by implanting the MAC16 colon tumour. The in vivo data indicate that low doses of curcumin c3 (100 mg/kg body weight) was able to prevent weight loss in mice bearing MAC16 tumours whereas higher doses of curcumin c3 (250 mg/kg body weight) resulted in approximately 25 % (P < 0·05) weight gain as compared with the placebo-treated animals. Additionally, the effect of curcumin c3 on preventing and/or reversing cachexia was also evident by gains in the weight of the gastrocnemius muscle (30–58 %; P < 0·05) and with the increased size of the muscle fibres (30–65 %; P < 0·05). Furthermore, curcumin inhibited proteasome complex activity and variably reduced expression of muscle-specific ubiquitin ligases: atrogin-1/muscle atrophy F-box (MAFbx) and muscle RING finger 1 (MURF-1). In conclusion, oral curcumin c3 results in the prevention and reversal of weight loss. The data imply that curcumin c3 may be an effective adjuvant therapy against cachexia.

Hesperidin (Hp), a citrus flavonoid predominantly found in oranges, shows bone-sparing effects in ovariectomised (OVX) animals. In human subjects, the bioavailability of Hp can be improved by the removal of the rhamnose group to yield hesperetin-7-glucoside (H-7-glc). The aim of the present work was to test whether H-7-glc was more bioavailable and therefore more effective than Hp in the prevention of bone loss in the OVX rat. Adult 6-month-old female Wistar rats were sham operated or OVX, then pair fed for 90 d a casein-based diet supplemented or not with freeze-dried orange juice enriched with Hp or H-7-glc at two dose equivalents of the hesperetin aglycone (0·25 and 0·5 %). In the rats fed 0·5 %, a reduction in OVX-induced bone loss was observed regarding total bone mineral density (BMD):+7·0 % in OVX rats treated with Hp (HpOVX) and +6·6 % in OVX rats treated with H-7-glc (H-7-glcOVX) v. OVX controls (P < 0·05). In the rats fed 0·25 % hesperetin equivalents, the H-7-glcOVX group showed a 6·6 % improvement in total femoral BMD v. the OVX controls (P < 0·05), whereas the Hp diet had no effect at this dose. The BMD of rats fed 0·25 % H-7-glc was equal to that of those given 0·5 % Hp, but was not further increased at 0·5 % H-7-glc. Plasma hesperetin levels and relative urinary excretion were significantly enhanced in the H-7-glc v. Hp groups, and the metabolite profile showed the absence of eriodictyol metabolites and increased levels of hesperetin sulphates. Taken together, improved bioavailability of H-7-glc may explain the more efficient bone protection of this compound.

A diet rich in lignans has been suggested to be protective against a range of chronic diseases. The distribution and metabolic fate of lignans is, however, very poorly understood. We fed high-fibre wheat breads low in lignans (n 8) or high-fibre rye breads (n 9) rich in plant lignans to pigs for 58–67 d, and analysed the content of plant lignans and their metabolites in the diet, blood, bile, faeces, urine and selected tissues. Apparent faecal digestibility of dietary precursors was higher than of total (plant- and entero-) lignans due to conversion to enterolactone and enterodiol. The digestibility of lariciresinol and matairesinol was lower than that of the sum of plant lignans. This suggests that interconversion of plant lignans during digestion and enterohepatic circulation occur without complete conversion to enterolignans. The majority of lignans present in plasma and urine was in the form of enterolignans, but up to 23 % in the plasma, and 11 % in the urine of the rye-fed pigs were in the form of plant lignans. There was a very high concentration of lignans in bile from the rye-fed pigs with as much as 77 % in the form of plant lignans. Lignans were detected in the tissue of colon, liver, breast and brain at a much higher level with rye than with wheat, but only in the form of enterolactone. The importance and implications of systemic exposure to plant lignans remain to be elucidated.

We evaluated the effects of partly substituting lard with marine n-3 fatty acids (FA) on body composition and weight, adipose tissue distribution and gene expression in five adipose depots of male Wistar rats fed a high-fat diet. Rats were fed diets including lard (19·5 % lard) or n-3 FA (9·1 % lard and 10·4 % Triomar™) for 7 weeks. Feed consumption and weight gain were similar, whereas plasma lipid concentrations were lower in the n-3 FA group. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed smaller visceral (mesenteric, perirenal and epididymal) adipose depots in the n-3 FA-fed animals (35, 44 and 32 % reductions, respectively). n-3 FA feeding increased mRNA expression of cytokines as well as chemokines in several adipose depots. Expression of Adipoq and Pparg was enhanced in the mesenteric adipose depots of the n-3 FA-fed rats, and fasting plasma insulin levels were lowered. Expression of the lipogenic enzymes Acaca and Fasn was increased in the visceral adipose depots, whereas Dgat1 was reduced in the perirenal and epididymal depots. Cpt2 mRNA expression was almost doubled in the mesenteric depot and liver. Carcass analyses showed similar body fat (%) in the two feeding groups, indicating that n-3 FA feeding led to redistribution of fat away from the visceral compartment.

Over the last few years, several aspects of Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis) culture have been developed and optimised but the dietary lipid level for optimal growth has never been determined. Hence, five isonitrogenous diets (56 % dietary protein) with increasing dietary lipid levels (4, 8, 12, 16 and 20 % DM) were fed to satiation to triplicate groups of twenty fish (mean initial weight 10 g). Fifteen tanks were randomly assigned one of the five diets. Feed was distributed using automatic feeders, and fish were fed over a 16-week period. At the end of the experiment the fish fed on diets containing the two lowest dietary lipid levels (4 and 8 %) showed a 3-fold body-weight increase with a significantly higher daily growth index than fish fed higher lipid levels (1·2 v. 0·8). Moreover, these fish displayed a significantly lower dry feed intake (12 g/kg per d) and feed conversion ratio (1·0) compared with fish fed higher lipids levels (16–19 g/kg per d; feed conversion ratio 2·0). Low dietary lipid levels ( < 12 %) significantly improved nutrient retention and gain and hence growth, without major effects on whole-body composition. Despite the slight alteration in n-3 PUFA muscle content in the fish fed low-fat-diets, this fish fed low dietary lipid still remains a rich n-3 PUFA product and generally maintained its nutritional value. These results evidenced a low lipid tolerance of Senegalese sole juveniles and suggest a maximal dietary inclusion level of 8 % lipids for both optimal growth and nutrient utilisation without compromising flesh quality.

Secoisolariciresinol diglucoside is the main flax (Linum usitatissimum) lignan that is converted to the mammalian lignans enterodiol (ED) and enterolactone (EL) by gastrointestinal microbiota. The objectives of the present study were to investigate the role of ruminal microbiota and the effects of flax oil on in vivo metabolism of flax lignans and concentration of EL in biological fluids. Four rumen-cannulated dairy cows were used in a 4 × 4 Latin square design. There were four periods of 21 d each and four treatments utilising flax hulls (1800 g/d) and oil (400 g/d) supplements. The treatments were: (1) oil and hulls administered in the rumen and abomasal infusion of water; (2) oil and hulls administered in the abomasum; (3) oil infused in the abomasum and hulls placed in the rumen; (4) oil placed in the rumen and hulls administered in the abomasum. Samples were collected during the last week of each period and subjected to chemical analysis. The site of supplementation of oil and hulls had no effect on ruminal EL concentration. Supplementing flax oil in the rumen and the abomasum led to similar EL concentrations in urine, plasma and milk. Concentrations of EL were higher in the urine, plasma and milk of cows supplemented with hulls in the rumen than in those placed with hulls in the abomasum. The present study demonstrated that ruminal microbiota play an important role in the metabolism of flax lignans.

A commercially available vegetable oil containing a high concentration (87 %, w/w) of diacylglycerol (DAG) has been investigated in humans and animals for potential beneficial effects in reducing serum TAG concentrations in fasting and postprandial states. Effects of DAG oil as a sole dietary fat source (25 % metabolisable energy) were evaluated in a feline model of hypertriacylglycerolaemia. Eleven adult (1·5 (sem 0·1) years) male cats deficient of lipoprotein lipase (LPL) catalytic activity from a heritable point mutation of the LPL gene were acclimatised to a semi-purified diet containing TAG oil for 21 d. After assignment into two groups, pair-matched by serum TAG concentrations (range 6·1–31·6 mmol/l), the cats were fed the diet with either TAG or DAG oil for 8 d. The dietary fat source was crossed-over and presented for 8 d more. Non-fasting serum concentrations of TAG, cholesterol and NEFA were measured on days 6–8 and days 14–16. Dietary fat source (DAG v. TAG) did not significantly affect food intake (491 (sem 16) v. 486 (sem 14) kJ/kg0·67), body weight or serum concentrations (mmol/l) of TAG (37·1 (sem 4·5) v. 33·9 (sem 3·4)), cholesterol (4·8 (sem 0·3) v. 4·8 (sem 0·2)) and NEFA (1·4 (sem 0·2) v. 1·4 (sem 0·2)). The results show that for a feeding trial of 8 d, DAG oil was well accepted and tolerated by cats but did not reduce hypertriacylglycerolaemia resulting from a deficiency of LPL catalytic activity.

Canteens are known to be promising settings for activities to promote intake of fruits and vegetables, but it remains unclear to what extent distributing free fruits and vegetables can influence dietary patterns of customers. The present study evaluated the effect of providing fruits and vegetables for free in a university canteen on the daily diet of university canteen customers. Canteen customers (n 209) were randomly allocated to a fruit and vegetable group (FVG) and a control group (CG). FVG participants were given two portions of fruits and one portion of vegetables for free at lunchtime. Food and beverage intake was measured using a dietary record for 3 d and dietary quality was appraised using a comprehensive scoring system. The FVG participants ate 80 g more fruits (P < 0·01) and 108 g more vegetables (P < 0·001) on a daily basis compared with the CG participants. No differences were found for energy density, total energy, Na and energy from fat between the groups per day. A higher intake of fruits and vegetables was observed at lunch and of vegetables during the dinner and evening snacks. The FVG participants were more likely to comply with dietary recommendations for fruits and vegetables and had a better dietary profile on the study days and for the lunch consumed on those days. The results of the present study demonstrate how modifications of a canteen lunch can be instrumental to enhance the nutritional quality of lunch as well as the overall quality of the diet of the customers.

Mechanisms underlying the lipodystrophy syndrome associated with antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV infection are not completely understood. We investigated the effect of ART on blood lipid concentrations in the fasting state and after consumption of a meal containing [1-13C]palmitic acid in HIV-positive men receiving nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI, n 7), NRTI combined with protease inhibitors (PI; NRTIPI, n 6), in HIV-positive but therapy-naïve men (noART, n 5) and in HIV-seronegative men (controls, n 6). HIV-positive subjects had higher fasting TAG concentrations and resting energy expenditure than controls. Subjects receiving NRTIPI therapy had higher fasting NEFA concentrations than the other groups. There were no significant differences in postprandial lipid metabolism between noART subjects and controls. NRTI therapy impaired hydrolysis of meal-derived TAG, most evidently when combined with PI (the NRTIPI group). Accumulation of 13C-label in the NEFA fraction was not different between groups. In the NRTIPI group, fasting and postprandial NEFA concentrations were significantly higher than other groups. Postprandial glucose and insulin responses in HIV-positive subjects did not differ from controls. These findings suggest that ART dyslipidaemia is associated with impaired postprandial TAG clearance, which is exacerbated by NRTIPI therapy. If dyslipidaemia is to be minimised in ART, the specific adverse effects of particular combinations during the fed state should be considered.

In the Western world, a trend towards increased consumption of carbonated soft drinks combined with a decreasing intake of milk is observed. This may affect circulating insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) and fasting insulin, as seen in pre-pubertal children. The present study was designed to reflect the trend of replacing milk with carbonated beverages in young men and to study the effects of this replacement on IGF-I, IGF-binding protein 3 (IGFBP-3), IGF-I:IGFBP-3 and glucose–insulin metabolism. A randomised, controlled crossover intervention study, in which eleven men aged 22–29 years were given a low-Ca diet in two 10 d periods with 10 d washout in between. In one period, they drank 2·5 litres of Coca Cola® per day and the other period 2·5 litres of semi-skimmed milk. Serum IGF-I, IGFBP-3 (RIA), insulin (fluoro immunoassay) and glucose (Cobas) were determined at baseline and end point of each intervention period. Insulin resistance and β-cell function were calculated with the homeostasis model assessment. A decrease in serum IGF-I was observed in the cola period compared with the milk period (P < 0·05). No effects of treatment were observed on IGFBP-3, IGF-I:IGFBP-3, insulin, glucose, insulin resistance or β-cell function. The present study demonstrates that high intake of cola over a 10 d period decreases total IGF-I compared with a high intake of milk, with no effect on glucose–insulin metabolism in adult men. It is unknown whether this is a transient phenomenon or whether it has long-term consequences.

Approximately 25 % of individuals with Crohn's disease (CD), a life-long relapsing-remitting disease, are diagnosed during childhood and adolescence. Symptoms of CD, including abdominal pain, nausea and diarrhoea, can lead to reduced food intake, which may negatively have an impact on nutritional status during this critical period of growth and development. The aims of the present study were to assess the growth and adequacy of dietary intakes of children with CD at Sydney Children's Hospital, Randwick, and compare with healthy controls. Sixty-three subjects aged 10–16 years were recruited, including: children with active CD (n 18), children with CD in remission (n 23) and healthy controls (n 22). Dietary intake was assessed using a FFQ and compared with current Australian recommended dietary intakes (RDI). Growth and dietary intakes were compared between groups. Subjects with active CD had lower weight and BMI Z scores than children in remission and controls. The energy intakes of children with active CD and those in remission were significantly lower than estimated energy requirements (P = 0·001 and P = 0·03 respectively). Children with active CD did not meet the RDI for Fe and their Ca intake was lower than the RDI (P = 0·04). In conclusion, the dietary intake of children with active CD was impaired, with inadequate intakes of energy, Ca and Fe. Reduced energy intakes during active disease may contribute to poor weight gain and impaired growth. Quantifying nutrient intake and ascertaining requirements for nutritional supplementation are essential components of successful management in paediatric CD.

Limited information is available with respect to the association between age and the plasma phospholipid fatty acid profile. Therefore we investigated the association between plasma phospholipid fatty acid status and age after correction for sex, smoking, alcohol use, BMI and fish intake. Plasma phospholipid fatty acid composition was measured and information on fish intake and other potential covariates was collected in 234 participants of the Maastricht Aging Study. The participants were healthy individuals of both sexes with an age range between 36 and 88 years. Hierarchical linear regression analyses were applied to study the relationship between age and fatty acid concentrations. After correction for fish consumption and other relevant covariates, a significant positive relationship was observed between age of the subjects and their plasma phospholipid concentrations of DHA (22 : 6n-3, P = 0·006) and EPA (20 : 5n-3; P = 0·001). Age contributed 2·3 and 3·9 % to the amount of explained variance, respectively. The higher n-3 long-chain PUFA status at advanced age was confirmed by lower concentrations of their putative ‘shortage marker’ Osbond acid (ObA, 22 : 5n-6; P = 0·022 for the relationship with age after correction for covariates and fish intake, R2 0·022). Concentrations of linoleic acid (LA; 18 : 2n-6) were negatively associated with age (P < 0·001; R2 0·061). In conclusion, DHA and EPA concentrations appeared to be higher in older age groups, partly because of a higher fish intake and partly because of another age-associated mechanism, possibly involving the well-known competition with LA.

Regular consumption of flavonoids may reduce the risk for CVD. However, the effects of individual flavonoids, for example, quercetin, remain unclear. The present study was undertaken to examine the effects of quercetin supplementation on blood pressure, lipid metabolism, markers of oxidative stress, inflammation, and body composition in an at-risk population of ninety-three overweight or obese subjects aged 25–65 years with metabolic syndrome traits. Subjects were randomised to receive 150 mg quercetin/d in a double-blinded, placebo-controlled cross-over trial with 6-week treatment periods separated by a 5-week washout period. Mean fasting plasma quercetin concentrations increased from 71 to 269 nmol/l (P < 0·001) during quercetin treatment. In contrast to placebo, quercetin decreased systolic blood pressure (SBP) by 2·6 mmHg (P < 0·01) in the entire study group, by 2·9 mmHg (P < 0·01) in the subgroup of hypertensive subjects and by 3·7 mmHg (P < 0·001) in the subgroup of younger adults aged 25–50 years. Quercetin decreased serum HDL-cholesterol concentrations (P < 0·001), while total cholesterol, TAG and the LDL:HDL-cholesterol and TAG:HDL-cholesterol ratios were unaltered. Quercetin significantly decreased plasma concentrations of atherogenic oxidised LDL, but did not affect TNF-α and C-reactive protein when compared with placebo. Quercetin supplementation had no effects on nutritional status. Blood parameters of liver and kidney function, haematology and serum electrolytes did not reveal any adverse effects of quercetin. In conclusion, quercetin reduced SBP and plasma oxidised LDL concentrations in overweight subjects with a high-CVD risk phenotype. Our findings provide further evidence that quercetin may provide protection against CVD.

Studies on the association between plant foods and cerebrovascular diseases have given contradictory results suggesting the existence of some effect-modifying factors. The present study determines whether the consumption of plant foods (i.e. fruits and berries, vegetables, and cereals) predicts a decreased cerebrovascular disease incidence in a population with low fruit and vegetable and high wholegrain intake. This cohort study on 3932 men and women was based on data from the Finnish Mobile Clinic Health Examination Survey, conducted in 1968–72. The participants were 40–74 years of age and free of cardiovascular diseases at baseline. Data on the plant food consumption were derived from a 1-year dietary history interview. During a 24-year follow-up 625 cases of cerebrovascular diseases occurred, leading to either hospitalisation or death. An inverse association was found between fruit consumption and the incidence of cerebrovascular diseases, ischaemic stroke and intracerebral haemorrhage. The adjusted relative risks (RR) between the highest and lowest quartiles of intake of any cerebrovascular disease, ischaemic stroke and intracerebral haemorrhage were 0·75 (95 % CI 0·59, 0·94), 0·73 (95 % CI 0·54, 1·00) and 0·47 (95 % CI 0·24, 0·92), respectively. These associations were primarily due to the consumption of citrus fruits and occurred only in men. Total consumption of vegetables or cereals was not associated with the cerebrovascular disease incidence. The consumption of cruciferous vegetables, however, predicted a reduced risk of cerebrovascular diseases (RR 0·79; 95 % CI 0·63, 0·99), ischaemic stroke (RR 0·67; 95 % CI 0·49, 0·92) and intracerebral haemorrhage (RR 0·49; 95 % CI 0·25, 0·98). In conclusion, the consumption of fruits, especially citrus, and cruciferous vegetables may protect against cerebrovascular diseases.

The BMI cut-score used to define overweight and obesity was derived primarily using data from Caucasian men and women. The present study evaluated the racial/ethnic bias of BMI to estimate the adiposity of young men and women (aged 17–35 years) using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) determination of percentage body fat (DXA-BF%) as the referent standard. The samples were 806 women and 509 men who were tested from one to three times over 9 months providing 1300 observations for women and 820 observations for men. Linear mixed models (LMM) regression showed that with age and BMI controlled, DXA-BF% of African-American (AA) men and women, Asian-Indian men and women, Hispanic women and Asian women significantly differed from non-Hispanic white (NHW) men and women. For the same BMI of NHW women, the DXA-BF% of AA women was 1·76 % lower, but higher for Hispanic (1·65 %), Asian (2·65 %) and Asian-Indian (5·98 %) women. For the same BMI of NHW men, DXA-BF% of AA men was 4·59 % lower and 4·29 % higher for Asian-Indian men. Using the recommended BMI cut-scores to define overweight and obesity systematically overestimated overweight and obesity prevalence for AA men and women, and underestimated prevalence for Asian-Indian men and women, Asian women and Hispanic women. The present study extends the generalisability of research documenting the racial/ethnic bias of the universal overweight and obesity BMI cut-scores.