Early Proterozoic rapakivi intrusions in S Greenland occur as thick sheets which have ramp–flat geometry and were intruded along the median planes of active ductile extensional shear zones. These shear zones and their intrusions were linked via transfer zones in a major three-dimensional framework. At high structural levels (c. 6 km) the rapakivi intrusions developed thermal aureoles which overprint the regional assemblages, whereas at deeper levels in the regional structure they are contemporaneous with regional metamorphism. Thermobarometry on the regional and contact assemblages indicates low pressure granulite facies conditions (200–400 MPa, 650°-800°C) suggesting very high thermal gradients. The rapakivi suite and associated norites have low initial 87Sr/86Sr together with positive εNd values, indicating the involvement of predominantly young crust and/or mantle component in the generation of the igneous suite. It is considered that the voluminous norites are closely related to the mafic melts which underplated the juvenile crust to trigger the generation of the monzonitic rapakivi suite. Taken together, the data are consistent with a model of Proterozoic lithospheric extension, thinning of relatively juvenile continental crust and compression of mantle isotherms, resulting in high crustal heat flow, mafic underplating, and crustal melting with emplacement of magmas along a linked network of extensional shear zones.

The various structures in the marsupial shoulder girdle are so unquestionably homologous with similar structures in the girdle of the human subject and of the Eutheria generally, that there has never been any difficulty in interpreting the parts in terms of human anatomy; but when the elements are compared with those in what we may consider to have been the ancestral condition, such as is exemplified in the shoulder girdle of the Monotremes, or of the Anomodonts, or in the more distantly related conditions met with in modern Reptiles and Amphibians, we are confronted with quite a number of difficulties, to which the most varied solutions have been applied by different morphologists. The chief difficulty in the way of comparing the typical mammalian girdle with that of the lower forms, is that in the girdle of the higher mammals certain structures are rudimentary, and, further, that the forms that have hitherto been examined have been so far removed from the ancestral stock that even a study of the early developmental conditions fails to give any clues that are more satisfactory than those afforded by comparative anatomy. Though it has been suspected that further results would be obtained from the study of the early condition in Marsupials and Monotremes, the embryos of these groups that have hitherto been studied have been too old to yield much further evidence than that obtained by a study of the adult forms.

Two contrasted oceanographical regions are dealt with in this paper, the fauna of the eastern Pacific being distinct from that of the Marquesas, which are the farthest outliers of the western ocean. In each of these two regions again are two divisions of markedly different ecology, physical conditions in the Galapagos being as great a contrast as could well be to those of the coast of Panama, while the Marquesas Islands differ from their neighbours farther west, which are either atolls, or high islands surrounded by broad reefs, in being without coral deposits of any considerable size, and certainly no true reefs. The corals afford a striking example of the contrast between the two main regions; in Panama the only abundant coral is Pocillopora, in the Marquesas the only “reef” is of Porites, and the other deposits depend upon this genus for their existence. Several species of Pocillopora are abundant in the Marquesas, but are all distinct from those of Panama.

In view of the frequent appearance, even in technical literature, of the old-fashioned idea that the lung of the tetrapod has evolved out of the air-bladder of fish, further work on the morphology of the air-bladder seems desirable. The theory of an air-bladder origin of the lung was brought forward by Boas, who based his view on purely theoretical arguments, which have, however, not found support in the facts brought to light by the advance of our knowledge of the embryology of the more archaic vertebrates.

The first three parts of this work, on the skeleton and muscles, were published in the Transactions of the Society in 1905, 1907, and 1909.

In 1905 I briefly drew attention to the existence of vascular papillæ on the afferent branchial arteries of Myxine, which had up to that time escaped notice, and which I then described in the following words: “In addition to the definite bloodvessels, Myxine possesses a system of large lacunar spaces, such as the extensive subdermal cavity, the spongy tissue of the head, the peribranchial sinuses, etc., which have been generally regarded as belonging to the lymphatic system. I have, however, long been convinced that these spaces were in communication with the blood vascular stream.

Since the foundation of the Scottish Meteorological Society in 1856, a mass of information regarding the climate of Edinburgh has been reduced and published in the Society's Journal from time to time, the data being furnished to that body by its local observers. In addition, numerous unreduced manuscript books of meteorological observations which extend back to the year 1764 are further available for discussion. In 1861 the late Principal Forbes communicated to this Society a paper on the “Climate of Edinburgh,” two elements of climate being alone discussed, viz., temperature and rainfall, and for a period of but forty years. The reduction of the observations taken virtually without a break during the past 132 years was therefore desirable for the discussion of cyclical and other weather changes, for which records covering a long period are absolutely necessary. Through the kindness of the Councils of the Scottish Meteorological Society, the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and the Royal Meteorological Society, the loan of the manuscript registers kept in Edinburgh and its immediate vicinity was obtained.

Macrurous decapod crustaceans are generally uncommon and are often incompletely preserved. However, at certain horizons in the Speeton Clay (Ryazanian–Albian) and Atherfield Clay (Lower Aptian) of Yorkshire and the Isle of Wight respectively, macrurans form the dominant element of the fauna. Two species in particular, Meyeria ornata (Phillips) and Meyerella magna (M'Coy), are not only very common in these formations, but are also very well preserved. Recent collections have yielded a large number of specimens of both species. This material is examined with the aid of SEM techniques, gross morphology is discussed, and the details of the exoskeletons are compared. In the case of M. magna, examples are figured which show traces of a colour pattern and the effects of regeneration on the first pereiopods. A discussion is included of the possible function of the appendages in M. magna and M. ornata, and of their other, unique features. Finally, the mode of life of both species is inferred from a consideration of their morphology, and of the evidence from their preservation, distribution and relationships with associated faunas.

The Precambrian basement on the islands of Islay, Colonsay and Inishtrahull comprises a deformed igneous association of mainly syenite and gabbro, with minor mafic and felsic intrusions. This association is collectively referred to as the Rhinns Complex. Isotopic data indicate that the complex represents new addition of material to the crust at c. 1·8 Ga. The igneous protolith was juvenile mantle-derived material, not reworked Archaean crust. Overall, the complex has an alkalic composition, with major and trace element patterns similar to igneous rocks generated in a subduction-related setting: high LILE/HFSE and LREE/HREE ratios, together with negative Nb, P and Ti anomalies.

The formation of the Rhinns Complex was contemporaneous with the Laxfordian tectonothermal cycle in the Lewisian Complex. These Proterozoic events are most likely associated with an extensive 1·9–1·7 Ga mobile belt around the southern margin of Laurentia-Baltica. As part of this belt, the Rhinns Complex forms a link between the Ketilidian province of South Greenland and the Svecofennian of Scandinavia.

Inherited isotopic signatures in the Caledonian granites on the north side of the Highland Boundary Fault may reflect the presence of a large area of Proterozoic basement (?Rhinns Complex) beneath Scotland and NW Ireland. Alternatively, the Proterozoic signature could be derived from the incorporation of Moine or Dalradian sediment into the granitic magmas.

This memoir is based upon the study of three normal human embryos belonging to the period of development preceding the cleavage of the paraxial mesoderm into the primitive segments, as well as of certain abnormal specimens of the same early period which have yielded valuable corroborative data, but will not be described in detail. Well-preserved specimens belonging to these early stages are very rare, and our knowledge has been, and can only be, built up from the detailed descriptions of isolated cases by the individual observers into whose hands they happen to fall.

The position of the Falkland Islands adjacent to the South American continental margin belies the close association of their geology with that of South Africa. A Mesoproterozoic basement is unconformably overlain by a Silurian to Devonian succession of fluvial to neritic and shallow marine, siliciclastic strata. This is disconformably succeeded by a largely Permian succession that, near its base, includes a glacigenic diamictite and, thence, passes upwards into a succession of deltaic and lacustrine strata. The lithological succession and the character of its deformation bear striking similarities to the Cape Fold Belt and Karoo retroarc foreland basin. Swarms of Early Jurassic dykes were coeval with the Karoo magmatism and the initial break-up of Gondwana; Early Cretaceous dykes were intruded during the opening of the South Atlantic Ocean. Offshore sedimentary basins surrounding the archipelago contain Late Jurassic to Palaeogene successions and are currently the focus of hydrocarbon exploration. Best known is the North Falkland Basin, a classic failed rift. To the SE, the passive margin, Falkland Plateau Basin may also be rift-controlled, whilst the South Falkland Basin is a foreland basin created at the boundary of the South American and Scotia plates. The role of the Falkland Islands during the breakup of Gondwana remains controversial. Compelling evidence from the onshore geology favours rotation of an independent microplate from an original position adjacent to the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Alternative interpretations, justified largely from offshore geology, favour extension of the Falkland Plateau as a fixed promontory from the South American margin.

We have already referred in the second part of this series to the opinions held by various authors as to the systematic position of the genera Thamnopteris, Bathypteris and Anomorrhœa, and have given in detail the reasons that have induced us to adopt these names for the specimens included in these genera (cf. Part II., p. 213). It is therefore unnecessary for us to deal any further with the historical aspect of the matter in the present communication, and we will at once proceed to the description of the structure of the Fern stems in question.

This paper summarises developments in understanding sea level change during the Quaternary in Scotland since the publication of the Quaternary of Scotland Geological Conservation Review volume in 1993. We present a review of progress in methodology, particularly in the study of sediments in isolation basins and estuaries as well as in techniques in the field and laboratory, which have together disclosed greater detail in the record of relative sea level (RSL) change than was available in 1993. However, progress in determining the record of RSL change varies in different areas. Studies of sediments and stratigraphy offshore on the continental shelf have increased greatly, but the record of RSL change there remains patchy. Studies onshore have resulted in improvements in the knowledge of rock shorelines, including the processes by which they are formed, but much remains to be understood. Studies of Late Devensian and Holocene RSLs around present coasts have improved knowledge of both the extent and age range of the evidence. The record of RSL change on the W and NW coasts has disclosed a much longer dated RSL record than was available before 1993, possibly with evidence of Meltwater Pulse 1A, while studies in estuaries on the E and SW coasts have disclosed widespread and consistent fluctuations in Holocene RSLs. Evidence for the meltwater pulse associated with the Early Holocene discharge of Lakes Agassiz–Ojibway in N America has been found on both E and W coasts. The effects of the impact of storminess, in particular in cliff-top storm deposits, have been widely identified. Further information on the Holocene Storegga Slide tsunami has enabled a better understanding of the event, but evidence for other tsunami events on Scottish coasts remains uncertain. Methodological developments have led to new reconstructions of RSL change for the last 2000 years, utilising state-of-the-art GIA models and alongside coastal biostratigraphy to determine trends to compare with modern tide gauge and documentary evidence. Developments in GIA modelling have provided valuable information on patterns of land uplift during and following deglaciation. The studies undertaken raise a number of research questions which will require addressing in future work.

Soon after the publication of The Origin of Species it was realised by Huxley and others that convincing evidence of the fact of evolution might be obtained by a systematic investigation of the ancestral history and development of the Equidæ. From studying material in the British and other Museums Huxley announced at the end of the ’sixties that he believed “the Anchitherium, the Hipparion and the modern horses constitute a series in which the modifications of structure coincide with the order of chronological recurrence in the manner in which they must coincide if the modern horses really are the result of the gradual metamorphosis in the course of the Tertiary epoch of a less specialised ancestral form.” But this conclusion was soon profoundly modified. When in 1876 Huxley had the opportunity of examining the Yale and other collections of the fossil horses of America, he was satisfied that “we must look to America rather than to Europe for the original seat of the Equine series,” and “that the European Hipparion is rather a member of a collateral branch than a form in the direct line of succession.”

This paper is the first of a series of reports on the detailed investigations of the Gelogy of Central Vestspitsbergen arising out of the Cambridge Spitsbergen Expedition, 1949. While subsequent publications will consist almost entirely of new data, the purpose of this paper is primarily to compile information obtained previously. Following the Introduction, there is a review of the published literature as it affects the area as a whole; this has been attempted at length to save repetition in the later chapters and in any subsequent papers. The later chapters include a detailed study of the Carboniferous to Lower Permian of Billefjorden, using unpublished material which has been made available from several expeditions of the Scottish Spitsbergen Syndicate, some results from the Cambridge Spitsbergen Expedition, 1938, and from that of 1949 in so far as they affect this particular study. It therefore represents an original contribution resulting from a compilation and checking in the field of the work of a number of geologists.

The palæontological results are being worked out separately, but within the area, exposures are sufficient to provide a reliable correlation of the Carboniferous to Lower Permian succession recorded in a number of vertical sections. We have found that the very variable facies can best be grouped into the following formations, retaining so far as possible the earlier names:

The major Devonian diastrophism was followed by erosion, deposition, and again erosion in the Devonian. Culm of estuarine facies was then deposited in a basin due to subsequent movements along a great north-south Devonian fault-belt. They rest on the Devonian to the west of the fault-belt and on pre-Devonian to the east. After the Culm, local conglomerates reflect movements along this fault-belt at the western margin, and in the centre of the basin evaporites are developed. Although a number of disconformities can be traced, there is no important unconformity in the basin. The widespread transgressions recorded outside this area, equivalent to the base of the Cyathophyllum Limestones and again to that of the Brachiopod Cherts, are marked within the area by distinct change of facies but no angular relationship of the bedding.

The distribution of these various formations is shown in a geological map to a scale of 1:100,000, which is the first comprehensive topographical and geological map of the whole area to be published.

This paper reviews the key evidence for global climate change and outlines the trends of climate change in Scotland, the potential impacts and the implications for policy makers. Human activity is causing a rise in atmospheric CO2 concentrations and there is little doubt that this is contributing to global warming. There is greater uncertainty about how this global trend will play out at a regional scale and also how close we are to climatic tipping points. Instrumental records document the overall trends and variability in Scotland's climate since 1914. These show that since the 1960s, Scotland's average climate has proved to be wetter (especially in the west) and warmer. This trend is expected to continue throughout the 21st Century with, on average, hotter and drier summers and milder and wetter winters. However, extreme events will continue to affect Scotland, as they have always done, and the severity and frequency of these events may increase. Sea levels will continue to rise modestly, especially in the Outer Hebrides and the Northern Isles. Some of the uncertainty in climatic predictions is captured in the probabilistic outputs of Defra's UK Climate Projections 2009 programme. An initial attempt to assess the likely impacts of climate change is provided in Defra's 2012 Climate Change Risk Assessment, which includes a report specific to Scotland. Whilst most of the risks involve negative impacts, with increased flooding and loss of biodiversity being especially adverse, there are also positive impacts with associated opportunities, especially in terms of increased agricultural production and larger numbers of tourists. The report on Scotland will allow different groups of policy makers to refine the risks associated with specific activities. But given the fragile nature of many of the metrics underpinning the report, caution should be exercised in using it to frame climate adaptation strategies.

The hibbertopteroid eurypterid genera Hibbertopterus, Dunsopterus, and Cyrtoctenus occur in the East Kirkton Limestone of Bathgate, West Lothian. Most specimens are fragmentary and appear to have been washed into the depositional area with plant debris and tuffaceous sediment. Nearly all of the identifiable material can be attributed to Hibbertopterus scouleri (Hibbert), but two isolated Cyrtoctenus combs, and a femur comparable with Dunsopterus have also been recognised.

New material of Hibbertopterus scouleri (Hibbert) reveals that the posterior legs and telson resemble those of the cyrtoctenids more closely than was previously thought. It is possible that Hibbertopterus, Dunsopterus, and Cyrtoctenus are indistinguishable except by relatively minor characteristics, and that all of the material from East Kirkton Quarry might be derived from a single eurypterid species. However, associations of the diagnostic sclerites which would demonstrate that these taxa are either cogeneric or distinct have not yet been found.

Micro computed tomography has revealed as yet undescribed internal braincase anatomy of the tetrapodomorph fish Gogonasus andrewsae from the Frasnian Gogo Formation, Paddy's Valley, Kimberley Region, Western Australia. The complete material, including the cranial cavities and channels for blood vessels and nerves, reveals several notable features inside the endocranium. The ethmosphenoid unit includes a median capsule, which lies underneath the median postrostral and rostral series. Based on innervation and association with cutaneous vessels, potential electroreceptive function is inferred for this capsule. Several regions of poor ossification, including foramina for the glossopharyngeal and abducens nerves, as well as the apparent suture separating the ethmoid from the sphenoid portions of the braincase, are possibly indicative of early ontogenetic features. Former interpretations of the course for the superficial ophthalmic nerve inside the nasal capsule of Osteolepis and Gyroptychius may be incorrect, with new research supporting a path through the nasal septum, as in Gogonasus.

The history of investigation of the Silurian rocks of the Dunquin inlier, Dingle Peninsula, County Kerry, Ireland is briefly reviewed. The Dunquin Group of upper Wenlock (Homerian) to middle Ludlow (Ludfordian) sedimentary and volcanic rocks is divided into five formations: the Ferriters Cove, Clogher Head, Mill Cove, Drom Point and Croaghmarhin Formations, the last of which reaches the Ludlow and passes transitionally into the succeeding continental Dingle Group, probably largely Přídolí in age. The Dunquin group is of varied shallow marine sediments with a continental episode probably represented in the Mill Cove Formation. The biostratigraphy of the other four formations is considered in relation to a full faunal list. Details of representative sections and exposures are provided. There is brief comment on the palaeogeographical setting of the inlier.

The first fossil opilioacariform mite (Acari: Opilioacariformes), Paracarus pristinus sp. n., is described from Baltic amber (Tertiary: Eocene). This well-preserved inclusion has six eyes and, thus, can be excluded from the derived, four-eyed genera. Based on characters such as the extremely long leg 4, it is assigned to the extant central Asian genus Paracarus Chamberlin & Mulaik, 1942. As with many Baltic amber inclusions, we lack an exact provenance for the type specimen, but the Baltic region is further north than the present day range of Recent opilioacariform species and suggests that the range of this group was once more extensive within Eurasia. The first solifuge (Solifugae) from Baltic amber is described as Palaeoblossia groehni gen. et sp. n. Based on its size and general appearance, it can be assigned to Daesiidae, and again represents an arachnid group which previously had a much wider geographical range. If adult, it may represent the smallest solifuge known.

The skull anatomy of a new species of the phytosaur Machaeroprosopus is described for the first time on the basis of two specimens from the Upper Triassic Cooper Canyon Formation of Texas. Additional information is provided by a third specimen referred to Machaeroprosopus sp. A paranasal bone, an additional paired element of the narial region, is identified. Important new data are presented for the braincase, including the morphology of the epipterygoid and presphenoid, an anterior process of the prootic, an anteroventral process of the laterosphenoid, and a parasphenoid process. Machaeroprosopus lottorum n. sp. is characterised by four apomorphies: a supratemporal fenestra closed on the skull roof with bevelled anterior rim, a comparatively short squamosal, a flat and rugose narial rim, and medially extended palatines that come close to form an ossified secondary palate. With respect to the supratemporal fenestra, the supraoccipital–parietal complex and several features of the squamosal, Machaeroprosopus lottorum n. sp. bridges the morphological gap between species previously referred to the genera Pseudopalatus and Redondasaurus. A parsimony analysis of known species of Machaeroprosopus supports the hypothesis that the development of the rostral crest in Machaeroprosopus is a sexually dimorphic feature, and questions the validity of the genus Redondasaurus. Consequently, Redondasaurus is here considered a junior synonym of Machaeroprosopus.