The evolution of midwater sediment plumes associated with deep-sea mining activities is investigated in the passive-transport phase using a simplified advection–diffusion-settling model. Key metrics that characterize the extent of plumes are defined based on a concentration threshold. Namely, we consider the volume flux of fluid that ever exceeds a concentration threshold, the furthest distance from and maximum depth below the intrusion where the plume exceeds the threshold, and the instantaneous volume of fluid in excess of the threshold. Formulas are derived for the metrics that provide insight into the parameters that most strongly affect the extent of the plume. The model is applied to a reference deep-sea mining scenario around which key parameters are varied. The results provide some sense of scale for deep-sea mining midwater plumes, but more significantly demonstrate the importance of the parameters that influence the evolution of midwater plumes. The model shows that the discharge mass flow rate and the concentration threshold play an equal and opposite role on setting the extent of the plume. Ambient ocean turbulence and the settling velocity distribution of particles play a lesser yet significant role on setting the extent, and can influence different metrics in opposing ways.

It is well established that small-scale cross-density (diapycnal) turbulent mixing induced by breaking of overturns in the interior of the ocean plays a significant role in sustaining the deep ocean circulation and in regulating tracer budgets such as those of heat, carbon and nutrients. There has been significant progress in the fluid mechanical understanding of the physics of breaking internal waves. Connection of the microphysics of such turbulence to the larger scale dynamics, however, is significantly underdeveloped. We offer a hybrid theoretical–statistical approach, informed by observations, to make such a link. By doing so, we define a bulk flux coefficient, $\varGamma _B$, which represents the partitioning of energy available to an ‘ocean box’ (such as a grid cell of a coarse resolution climate model), from winds, tides, and other sources, into mixing and dissipation. Here, $\varGamma _B$ depends on both the statistical distribution of turbulent patches and the flux coefficient associated with individual patches, $\varGamma _i$. We rely on recent parametrizations of $\varGamma _i$ and the seeming universal characteristics of statistics of turbulent patches to infer $\varGamma _B$, which is the essential quantity for representation of turbulent diffusivity in climate models. By applying our approach to climatology and global tidal estimates, we show that, on a basin scale, energetic mixing zones exhibit moderately efficient mixing that induces significant vertical density fluxes, while quiet zones (with small background turbulence levels), although highly efficient in mixing, exhibit minimal vertical fluxes. The transition between the less energetic to more energetic zones marks regions of intense upwelling and downwelling of deep waters. We suggest that such upwelling and downwelling may be stronger than previously estimated, which in turn has direct implications for the closure of the deep branch of the ocean meridional overturning circulation as well as for the associated tracer budgets.

We develop and investigate an advection–diffusion-settling model of deep-sea mining collector plumes, building on the analysis of midwater plumes in Part 1. In the case of collector plumes, deposition plays a predominant role in controlling the mass of sediment in suspension, and thus on setting the extent of the plume. We first discuss the competition between settling, which leads to deposition, and vertical turbulent diffusion, which stretches the plume vertically and reduces deposition. The time evolution of the concentration at the seabed is found to be a highly nonlinear function of time that depends non-trivially on the ratio of diffusion to settling time scales. This has direct implications for the three extent metrics considered, namely the instantaneous area of the seabed where a deposition rate threshold is exceeded, the furthest distance from the discharge where the plume exceeds a concentration threshold and the volume flux of fluid in the water column that ever exceeds a concentration threshold. Unlike the midwater plume, the particle velocity distribution of the sediment has the greatest influence on the extent metrics. The turbulence levels experienced by the plume also markedly affects its extent. Expected variability of turbulence and particle settling velocity yields orders of magnitude changes in the extent metrics.

We performed large-eddy simulations in a neutral atmospheric boundary layer to study the interaction between two identical wind farms with 72 turbines each. We demonstrate that the wind farm wake created by the upstream farm affects the entire flow in and around the downstream farm. The vertical entrainment fluxes above the downstream wind farm are strengthened, resulting in a faster wind farm wake recovery behind the downstream farm. These findings illustrate that interaction between extended wind farms affects flow structures beyond the wind farm scale. Furthermore, we demonstrate that wind farm wakes can reduce the power production of turbines throughout the downstream wind farms. We additionally observe that a staggered wind farm extracts more energy from the flow and thus creates a stronger wind farm wake than an aligned wind farm.

Metal additive manufacturing has enabled geometrically complex internal cooling channels for turbine and heat exchanger applications, but the process gives rise to large-scale roughness whose size is comparable to the channel height (which is 500 $\mathrm {\mu }$m). These super-rough channels pose previously unseen challenges for experimental measurements, data interpretation and roughness modelling. First, it is not clear if measurements at a particular streamwise and spanwise location still provide accurate representation of the mean (time- and plane-averaged) flow. Second, we do not know if the logarithmic layer survives. Third, it is unknown how well previously developed rough-wall models work for these large-scale roughnesses. To answer the above practical questions, we conduct direct numerical simulations of flow in additively manufactured super-rough channels. Three rough surfaces are considered, all of which are obtained from computed tomography scans of additively manufactured surfaces. The roughness’ trough to peak sizes are 0.1$h$, 0.3$h$ and 0.8$h$, respectively, where $h$ is the intended half-channel height. Each rough surface is placed opposite a smooth wall and the other two rough surfaces, leading to six rough-wall channel configurations. Two Reynolds numbers are considered, namely $Re_\tau =180$ and $Re_\tau =395$. We show first that measurements at one streamwise and spanwise location are insufficient due to strong mean flow inhomogeneity across the entire channel, second that the logarithmic law of the wall survives despite the mean flow inhomogeneity and third that the established roughness sheltering model remains accurate.

In offshore offloading operations, two vessels in a side-by-side configuration experience actions of both ambient water waves and liquid sloshing in internal tanks. Under the excitation of water waves, complex multibody motions are induced, resulting in liquid sloshing in tanks, and concurrently liquid sloshing can feedback to affect the vessels’ motions. The interaction between waves and two barges in a side-by-side configuration coupled with liquid sloshing effects is investigated for a fixed–free arrangement. A numerical model is developed based on the boundary element method to deal with complex wave induced multibody motions coupled with liquid sloshing in internal tanks. Due to the presence of a narrow gap between two vessels, gap resonance may occur, and a damping surface is introduced to suppress an unrealistic response near resonance. Concurrently, physical experiments with and without liquid sloshing effects are carried out. In-depth discussions on motion characteristics are given, and Stokes and non-Stokes natural frequencies associated with liquid sloshing are discussed. The significance of the present study is twofold. Firstly, the experimental measurements provide reference results for validations of numerical simulations. Secondly, this work gives an insight into wave induced motions with liquid sloshing effects under different wave headings which affect vessel operational safety.

Leidenfrost drops were recently found to host strong dynamics. In the present study, we investigate both experimentally and theoretically the flow structures and stability inside a Leidenfrost water drop as it evaporates, starting with a large puddle. As revealed by infrared mapping, the drop base is warmer than its apex by typically 10 $^{\circ }$C, which is likely to trigger bulk thermobuoyant flows and Marangoni surface flows. Tracer particles unveil complex and strong flows that undergo successive symmetry breakings as the drop evaporates. We investigate the linear stability of the base flows in a non-deformable, quasi-static, levitating drop induced by thermobuoyancy and the effective thermocapillary surface stress, using only one adjustable parameter. The stability analysis of nominally axisymmetric thermoconvective flows, parametrized by the drop radius $R$, yields the most unstable, thus, dominant, azimuthal modes (of wavenumber $m$). Our theory predicts well the radii $R$ for the mode transitions and cascade with decreasing wavenumber from $m=3,\, m=2$, down to $m=1$ (the eventual rolling mode that entails propulsion) as the drop shrinks in size. The effect of the escaping vapour is not taken into account here, which may further destabilize the inner flow and couple to the liquid/vapour interface to give rise to motion (Bouillant et al. Nat. Phys., vol. 14 (12), 2018, pp. 1188–1192; Brandão & Schnitzer Physical Review Fluids, vol. 5 (9), 2020, 091601).

Pulsatile jet propulsion is a highly energy-efficient swimming mode used by various species of aquatic animals that continues to inspire engineers of underwater vehicles. Here, we present a bio-inspired jet propulsor that combines the flexible hull of a jellyfish with the compression motion of a scallop to create individual vortex rings for thrust generation. Similar to the biological jetters, our propulsor generates a nonlinear time-varying exit velocity profile and has a finite volume capacity. The formation process of the vortices generated by this jet profile is analysed using time-resolved velocity field measurements. The transient development of the vortex properties is characterised based on the evolution of ridges in the finite-time Lyapunov exponent field and on local extrema in the pressure field derived from the velocity data. Special attention is directed toward the vortex merging observed in the trailing shear layer. During vortex merging, the Lagrangian vortex boundaries first contract in the streamwise direction before expanding in the normal direction to keep the non-dimensional energy at its minimum value, in agreement with the Kelvin–Benjamin variational principle. The circulation, diameter and translational velocity of the vortex increase due to merging. The vortex merging takes place because the velocity of the trailing vortex is higher than the velocity of the main vortex ring prior to merging. The comparison of the temporal evolution of the Lagrangian vortex boundaries and the pressure-based vortex delimiters confirms that features in the pressure field serve as accurate and robust observables for the vortex formation process.

In this case study, we examine the effect of airfoil shape/camber on the formation and existence of stall cells. A series of experiments using a NACA0012 wing with a trailing-edge flap has been carried out over a range of angles of attack ($11.5^\circ$–$21^\circ$), flap angles ($0^\circ$, $5^\circ$, $10^\circ$) and chord-length-based Reynolds numbers (100 000–500 000). The influence of these parameters on stall cell formation has been explored. Tufts have been used to identify the flow behaviour near the surface, while forces have been measured to relate the surface flow behaviour and wing performance. The results from the tuft analysis on the wing indicated that two different Reynolds-number regimes exist with respect to stall cell formation criteria. A preliminary estimate of the airfoil shape influence on stall cell formation is presented. A data-driven approach is used to relate the aerodynamic parameters (lift coefficient and lift-curve slope) to the formation criteria of stall cells for the wing (and flap angles). The lift coefficient can be used to implicitly take into account the change in airfoil shape in addition to the angle of attack and the Reynolds number. It is hoped that the results presented in this case study could be extended to various other airfoil shapes and that the stall cell formation angle of attack can be deduced from just the mean lift behaviour.

The performance of horizontal dilution tubes is investigated by Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes and large-eddy simulations. The flame gas enters the dilution tube through a pinhole. The orifice flow and the dilution process inside the tube are studied. The volume flow through the orifice is shown to be proportional to the square root of the pressure drop. The discharge coefficient is 0.9 ± 0.3 in the cold air (calibration) case and drops to 0.35 under hot (flame) conditions. The resulting dilution ratio is roughly a factor of five below typical literature data. The gas sample remains in the wall boundary layer and the mixing process is not complete at the end of the dilution tube. Turbulence decays rapidly behind the tube inlet, which shifts the flow into the laminar to turbulent transition regime. Turbulence increases significantly in the outlet section which has much smaller pipe cross-sections. Despite its relatively low Reynolds number, the outlet flow to the particle sizer (or to the gas analyzer) is clearly turbulent, and interactions with the wall are probable. The results are in agreement with previous findings from laminar jets in cross-flow. Guidelines for optimization of the sampling conditions are suggested.

Most medical diagnostic tests are expensive, involve slow turnaround times from centralized laboratories and require highly specialized equipment with seasoned technicians to carry out the assay. To facilitate realization of precision medicine at the point of care, we have developed a mixed-scale nanosensor chip featuring high surface area pillar arrays where solid-phase reactions can be performed to detect and identify nucleic acid targets found in diseased patients. Products formed can be identified and detected using a polymer nanofluidic channel. To guide delivery of this platform, we discuss the operation of various components of the device and simulations (COMSOL) used to guide the design by investigating parameters such as pillar array loading, and hydrodynamic and electrokinetic flows. The fabrication of the nanosensor is discussed, which was performed using a silicon (Si) master patterned with a combination of focused ion beam milling and photolithography with deep reactive ion etching. The mixed-scale patterns were transferred into a thermoplastic via thermal nanoimprint lithography, which facilitated fabrication of the nanosensor chip making it appropriate for in vitro diagnostics. The results from COMSOL were experimentally verified for hydrodynamic flow using Rhodamine B as a fluorescent tracer and electrokinetic flow using single fluorescently labelled oligonucleotides (single-stranded DNAs, ssDNAs).

The SARS-CoV-2 is transmitted not only through coughing, but also through breathing, speaking or singing. We perform direct numerical simulations of the turbulent transport of potentially infectious aerosols in short conversations, involving repetitive phrases separated by quiescent intervals. We estimate that buoyancy effects due to droplet evaporation are small, and neglect them. A two-way conversation is shown to significantly reduce the aerosol exposure compared with a relative monologue by one person and relative silence of the other. This is because of the ‘cancelling’ effect produced by the two interacting speech jets. Unequal conversation is shown to significantly increase the infection risk to the person who talks less. Interestingly, a small height difference is worse for infection spread, due to reduced interference between the speech jets, than two faces at the same level. For small axial separation, speech jets show large oscillations and reach the other person intermittently. We suggest a range of lateral separations between two people to minimize transmission risk. A realistic estimate of the infection probability is provided by including exposure through the eyes and mouth, in addition to the more common method of using inhaled virions alone. We expect that our results will provide useful inputs to epidemiological models and to disease management.

The flow patterns in the heart, in health and disease, have been of great interest for several years. Modern fluid dynamics analyses elucidate how underlying inefficient energetic or mixing characteristics of these flow patterns correlate with adverse effects. Unfortunately, translation of such modern analyses to the clinical stage remains a challenge. In this experimental work, we propose and demonstrate that braids of random and sparse particle trajectories provide an intuitive, global and practical description of cardiovascular flows. Moreover, we expose the flow pattern in an experimental healthy left ventricle model as a highly effective blood mixer at the topological level. Flow topologies that deviate from this pattern are accompanied by a reduction in energetic efficiency, as shown through comparisons with diseased flow models. These results suggest an ideal clinical approach to patient follow-up and the evaluation of the performance of medical devices.

Redox flow batteries (RFBs) are an emerging electrochemical technology envisioned towards storage of renewable energy. A promising sub-class of RFBs utilizes single-flow membraneless architectures in an effort to minimize system cost and complexity. To support multiple functions, including reactant separation and fast reactant transport to electrode surfaces, electrolyte flow must be carefully designed and optimized. In this work, we propose adding a secondary channel adjacent to a permeable battery electrode, solving for the flow field and analysing the effects on the reactant concentration boundary layer at the electrode. We find that an adjacent channel with gradually changing thickness leads to a desired nearly uniform flow through the electrode to the adjacent channel. Consequently, the thickness of the concentration boundary layer is significantly reduced, increasing reactant transport to the electrode surface to 140% of the rate of a battery with a constant width adjacent channel, and 350% of the rate with no adjacent channel. Overall, this theory provides insight into the important role of flow physics for this promising sub-class of flow batteries, and can pave the way to improved energy efficiency of such flow batteries.

The placement of a scaled-down Savonius (drag) vertical-axis wind turbine on model buildings is analysed experimentally by the use of turbine performance and flow field measurements in a wind tunnel. The set-up consists of two surface mounted cubes aligned in the flow direction. The turbine is tested at six different streamwise positions – three on each cube. Velocity field measurements are performed with particle image velocimetry along the centreline of the cubes with and without the turbine. The performance at each position is evaluated based on measurements of the produced torque and the rotational speed of the turbine. It is demonstrated that the common practice of estimating wind resources based on the urban flow field without the turbine present is insufficient. The turbine has a substantial influence on the flow field and thus also on the available power. The performance is found to be optimal in the front and centre of the first building with a significant drop-off to the back. This trend is reversed for the downstream building. Holistically, for more generic geometries and varying wind directions, the results suggest the central position on a building is a good compromise.

We conduct a well-controlled model experiment for a wide variety of canopy flows. Examples of these include engineering flows such as wind flow, dispersion of scalars through and over urban areas, and the convective heat transfer in many heat exchangers, as well as natural canopies such as flows through terrestrial or aquatic vegetation. We aim to shed the light on fundamental flow and transport phenomena common to these applications. Specifically, the characteristics of mean flow and scalar concentration characteristics of a turbulent boundary layer flow impinging on a canopy, which comprises a cluster of tall obstacles (this can also be interpreted as a porous obstruction). The cluster is created with a group of cylinders of diameter $d$ and height $h$ arranged in a circular patch of diameter $D$. The solidity of the patch/obstruction is defined by $\phi$ (the total planar area covered by cylinders), which is systematically varied ($0.098 \leq \phi \leq 1$) by increasing the number of cylinders in a patch ($N_c$). A point source is placed at ground level upstream of the patch and its transport over and around the patch is examined. Time-averaged velocity and scalar fields, obtained from simultaneous planar particle image velocimetry-planar laser-induced fluorescence (PIV-PLIF) measurements, reveal that the characteristics of wake and flow above porous patches are heavily influenced by $\phi$. In particular, we observe that the horizontal and vertical extent of the wake and scalar concentration downstream of the patches decreases and increases with $\phi$, respectively. Here, the recirculation bubble is shifted closer to the trailing edge (TE) of the patches as $\phi$ increases, limiting the flow from convecting downstream, decreasing the scalar concentration and virtually ‘extending’ the patch in the streamwise direction. As the bubble forms in the TE, vertical bleeding increases and hence the concentration increases above the patch where the cylinders appear to ‘extend’ vertically towards the freestream.

Effects of gaps (rectangular surface cavities) on boundary-layer transition are investigated using a combination of linear stability theory and experiments, for boundary layers where the smooth-surface transition results from Tollmien–Schlichting (TS) instability. Results are presented for a wide range of gap characteristics, with the associated transition locations ranging from the smooth-surface location all the way forward to the gap location. The transition movement is well described by a variable $N$-factor, which links the gap characteristics to the level of instability amplification $e^N$ leading to transition. The gap effects on TS-wave transition are characterized by two limiting behaviours. For shallow gaps $d/w < 0.017$, the reduction in $N$-factor is a function of the gap depth $d$ and is independent of the gap width $w$. For deep gaps $d/w > 0.028$, the reduction in $N$-factor is a function of the gap width and is independent of the gap depth. When both the gap width and depth are sufficiently large relative to the displacement thickness $\delta ^*$, the TS-wave transition is bypassed, resulting in transition at the gap location. These behaviours are mapped out in terms of ($w/ \delta ^*$, $d/ \delta ^*$), providing a predictive model for gap effects on transition.

To mitigate the risk of wake vortex encounters during final approach, so-called plate lines have been developed. Data collected during a six-month measurement campaign at Vienna International Airport are used to assess the potential for reducing minimum aircraft separations facilitated by plate lines during approach and landing following the re-categorisation (RECAT-EU) methodology for revised wake turbulence categorisation. To ensure that no other parameters controlling wake vortex decay bias the analysis, it is verified that wind speed, atmospheric turbulence, thermal stratification and flight altitude reside in similar ranges with and without the plates. The analysis follows the steps of the RECAT-EU method to generate non-dimensional so-called reasonable worst-case circulation decay curves; one as a reference for nominal operations without plates and one representing the accelerated wake vortex decay brought about by the plate lines. The difference between the two circulation decay curves corresponds to the non-dimensional time-based aircraft separation reduction potential that can be translated into distance-based separation gains. Depending on the particular RECAT-EU category combination, the attained aircraft separation reduction potential ranges between 12% and 15%. Constricting the analysis to wake vortices generated by one aircraft type representing the Upper Heavy RECAT-EU category, the separation reduction potential amounts up to 24%.

When manufacturing a turbine engine, the combustor annulus and the turbine annulus are created as separate parts and assembled. This leads to an inter-platform gap between the two components, which must be supplied with leakage air to prevent ingestion of the extremely hot combustion gases into the interior of the engine. The combustor and the turbine are likely to misalign because of differential thermal expansion or assembly tolerances. This paper presents a direct numerical simulation study of inter-platform misalignment with leakage flow supplied at the junction of the platforms. The geometry is two misaligned plates with a cross-flow and a leakage flow simulated as a slot jet. The misalignment of the two plates gives rise to a forward misalignment configuration and a backward misalignment configuration, and the jet/cross-flow gives rise to a windward mixing layer and a leeward mixing layer. Compared with the aligned configuration, the cooling effectiveness immediately downstream of the gap decreases in the forward misalignment configuration and increases in the backward misalignment configuration; this response amplifies as the flow rate through the gap increases. In addition to the cooling effectiveness, we report flow statistics, including the velocity, the temperature, the turbulent kinetic energy and the relevant turbulent fluxes. We find strong turbulence generation in the leeward mixing layer and high turbulence level as a result. Mixing of the thermal energy, on the other hand, occurs predominantly in the windward mixing layer. The eddy viscosity and the eddy conductivity that are critical to turbulence modelling are also reported. We find negative eddy viscosity at regions where the incoming boundary layer starts to mix with the leakage jet. The analysis shows that the negative eddy viscosity is a result of flow hysteresis: it takes time, or travel distance, before the eddies in the incoming boundary layer and the eddies in the leakage jet come to an equilibrium, thereby favouring a transport Reynolds stress model over a local eddy viscosity type model. The novelty of this paper lies in the direct numerical simulations, which provide direct access to the near-wall flow field and clarify the effects of blowing ratio and platform misalignment on heat transfer. The novelty also lies in the data analysis, which sheds light on how this flow should be modelled.

Atmospheric turbulent velocity fluctuations are known to increase wind turbine structural loading and accelerate wake recovery, but the impact of vortical coherent structures in the atmosphere on wind turbines has not yet been evaluated. The current study uses flow imaging with natural snowfall with a field of view spanning the inflow and near wake. Vortical coherent structures with diameters of the order of 1 m are identified and characterized in the flow approaching a 2.5 MW wind turbine in the region spanning the bottom blade tip elevation to hub height. Their impact on turbine structural loading, power generation and wake behaviour are evaluated. Long coherent structure packets $(\mathrm{\ \mathbin{\lower.3ex\hbox{$\buildrel> \over {\smash{\scriptstyle\sim}\vphantom{_x}}$}}\ }200\;\textrm{m)}$ are shown to increase fluctuating stresses on the turbine support tower. Large inflow vortices interact with the turbine blades, leading to deviations from the expected power generation. The sign of these deviations is related to the rotation direction of the vortices, with rotation in the same direction as the circulation on the blades leading to periods of power surplus, and the opposite rotation causing power deficit. Periods of power deficit coincide with wake contraction events. These findings highlight the importance of considering coherent structure properties when making turbine design and siting decisions.