Among the important constraints to vegetable production in Africa are the lepidopteran pests, in particular Helicoverpa armigera (Hb.) and Plutella xylostella (L.) which cause direct yield loss as well as cosmetic damage. Egg parasitoids, especially Trichogramma spp., shown promise as biocontrol agents against both species in previous studies. In Africa, surveys have so far recorded 18 species of Trichogramma, eight of Trichogrammatoidea and seven of Telenomus besides one species each of Baryscopus and Oencyrtus. For effective utilisation of egg parasitoids in vegetable ecosystems in Africa, the experience gained elsewhere should be suitably utilised, and complementary research undertaken. This paper examines the scope for use of egg parasitoids in Africa, focusing on five research areas. Firstly, surveys should be undertaken to collect, characterise, and catalogue the different species and strains of egg parasitoids occurring in the region. Secondly, the pest status of target Lepidoptera and the potential demand for use of egg parasitoids in the major ecologies should be assessed. Thirdly, the local and/or exotic species/strains with good potential to control H. armigera and P. xylostella need to be identified, and fourthly, analyses aimed at selecting appropriate mass production and delivery systems for Trichogramma use in major vegetable crops should be undertaken. Finally, optimisation of inundative release strategies should be researched on. The scope for research collaboration within Africa and internationally is discussed.

The coconut palm is an important plantation crop in India, where it is cultivated on 1.796 million hectares. The rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes rhinoceros L. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) is a serious pest of coconut throughout India and southeast Asia, causing an estimated 10% yield loss in the crop. Successful biological control of this pest could be achieved using the non-occluded Oryctes virus (syn. Baculovirus oryctes or Oryctes baculovirus). This review provides an account of this microbial agent, its biology, effects and impact, production and maintenance and alternative hosts, particularly in the context of the Indian situation. It also proposes future areas for investigation on the virus, in order to achieve its commercial viability and more widespread use.

Using examples from surveys to collect natural enemies of the indigenous African sugarcane borer Eldana saccharina Walker throughout Africa, insight is given into what factors should be investigated should biological control of other indigenous African stemborers be considered. Indigenous host plant range, parts of indigenous and crop hosts attacked, types of natural enemies found in these different niches and natural enemy attack strategies are all important factors to consider when planning redistribution of indigenous natural enemies from one part of Africa to another. This knowledge is important when choosing the correct natural enemy for mass rearing and release into the affected crop, and can be used to manage the crop habitat, using the indigenous tritrophic systems identified, to increase crop diversity and thus effectiveness of indigenous natural enemies.

In Reunion Island, insect and mite pests are significant limiting factors to the development of market crops. Several studies have been carried out on some families of pests during the last 40 years, but no comprehensive survey has been undertaken on the arthropods of vegetable crops on this island. During 1997/1998, we studied the arthropod complex on eight main families of crops, namely Solanaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Brassicaceae, Fabaceae, Liliaceae, Asteraceae, Apiaceae and Rosaceae. During a complete year of collection, we gathered 123 species of pests, including 114 species of insects and 9 of mites. We also identified a total of 128 species of beneficials, including 51 species of parasitoïds and 77 species of predators and consisting of 101 species of insects, 14 of mites and 13 of arachnids. Our data constitute the first step for the implementation of strategies for pest monitoring and integrated pest management in an important sector for the island's insular economy.

The number of eggs and mobiles (immatures and adults) of Amblyseius manihoti on entire plants was determined during a 10-month period in a cassava field located in the Bahia region of Brazil. Observed percentages of eggs, immatures and adults were compared to theoretical stable age distributions (58 % for eggs, 24 % for immatures and 18 % for adults). These comparisons served as a basis to discuss the influence of fecundity, mortality and migration on the age structure of populations.

The incidence and distribution of the sorghum head bug, Eurystylus oldi Poppius (Heteroptera: Miridae), and other panicle pests of sorghum in research stations and farmers' fields in West and Central Africa (WCA) were assessed from 1985 to 1994. Maximum head bug abundance was observed during the dough stage. Head bug abundance was greater on improved cultivars, while the local guineense sorghums with long glumes were less susceptible, both at the research stations and the farmers' fields. Grain damage was moderate to severe, although farmers were mostly unaware of this insect and its damage potential, because it remains hidden inside the panicle. Sorghum midge (Stenodiplosis sorghicola Coq.) damage was very high on farmer's fields in Burkina Faso, Niger, and Nigeria. The shootfly Atherigona soccata Rond., stemborer Busseola fusca Fuller, grasshoppers, spittle bug Locris rubens Erichson, Campylomma spp., Creontiades pallidus Ramb., Agonoscelis spp., head caterpillars Helicoverpa armigera Hub., Pyroderces simplex Wlsm. and Eublemma gayneri Roths., were other insect pests damaging sorghum in the areas surveyed. It is proposed that future efforts in sorghum improvement for WCA should focus on developing cultivars with resistance to sorghum head bugs.

Termites (Isoptera: Termidae), white grubs (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) and millipedes (Myriapoda: Odontopygidae) are the major groups of soil pests that are widespread and of economic importance in groundnut production in sub-Saharan Africa. Other Coleopteran pests such as wireworms (Elateridae) and false wireworms (Tenebrionidae) are found to be of occasional importance. Farmers' cultural practices such as improper application of organic manure, leaving crop residues in farms, delay in planting and harvesting, and abiotic factors such as rainfall and soil texture also influence soil pest occurrence and damage. Groundnut farmers in most parts of sub-Saharan Africa seldom apply effective control measures against soil pests. This paper reviews the major soil pests of groundnuts and their damage, and discusses adopted control practices and their applicability in integrated pest management (IPM) modules, with an emphasis on the use of resistant groundnut varieties, cultural practices, botanicals and minimal application of synthetic insecticides.

The habitat preferences and activity patterns of Glossina swynnertoni Austen were studied using Siamese traps, electrified screens and vehicle patrols in Aitong, southwestern Kenya in three habitats: large thicket, wooded grassland and an Acacia community. Except in the Acacia community, G. swynnertoni occurred in association with Glossina pallidipes Austen. Apparent density varied significantly among the three habitats, being highest in the Acacia community, intermediate in wooded grassland and lowest in large thickets. Density also varied seasonally, with higher densities occurring in the rainy season than in the dry season in all three areas. Vehicle patrol was a more effective and rapid method for sampling G. swynnertoni than either Siamese traps or electrified screens. However, vehicle patrol catches were strongly biased in favour of males (4:1). Diurnal activity in the Acacia community was unimodal for both sexes, with peaks of activity occurring at 1100–1200 h for males and at 1400–1500 h for females. Both sexes remained active in the afternoon but activity declined rapidly towards dusk (1700–1800 h).

Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) was first recorded in South Africa in 1958 and became a major pest of maize and grain sorghum. It has invaded the main maize producing areas in the Highveld Region, gradually competitively displacing the indigenous Busseola fusca (Fuller). Between 1980 and 1993 two egg, seven larval and two pupal parasitoids were introduced for biological control of Ch. partellus. Cotesia flavipes Cameron (Braconidae), Paratheresia claripalpis van der Wulp (Tachinidae), Tetrastichus howardi (Olliff) (Eulophidae) and Xanthopimpla stemmator Thunberg (Ichneumonidae) were released and recovered from the field. Recoveries were made up to a few weeks after releases but parasitoids failed to survive the winter and establish. The harsh winter conditions in the release sites, the long larval diapause period of Ch. partellus, lack of synchronisation between the development of the parasitoids and that of their host larvae, and absence of alternative host plants were identified as the main obstacles for the parasitoids establishment. It is concluded that the prospects of achieving any degree of biological control of stemborers in the Highveld Region with parasitoids from the tropics are poor. A parasitoid from a temperate zone of the USA, Macrocentrus grandii Goidanich (Braconidae), was introduced recently into South Africa and is currently reared on Ch. partellus in quarantine. Macrocentrus grandii stays dormant in its diapausing host, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hubner), during winter to emerge in spring. Because of its ability to diapause in winter it is hoped that after releases, M. grandii will establish on Ch. partellus in the Highveld Region of South Africa.

The effect of gamma irradiation on the time-course mortality and radiosensitivity indices in 1- and 10-day-old adult Tribolium anaphe, T. brevicornis, T. castaneum, T destructor and T. freemani, was studied. Longevity was always adversely affected by irradiation, and it was linearly dependent on the dose rate. Except for 10-day-old adults, all the insects died within 12 weeks of γ-irradiation at 4 and 5 krad. In addition, T. destructor was markedly more radioresistant at all dose levels, and lived longer than the other species. The mean survival times of adults were generally shorter in females than in males for all species. The radiosensitivity indices did not vary widely among the species, but decreased as the dose increased in all the species, indicating that the resistance of the species was dose-dependent.

A survey among 240 resource-poor farmers at the Kenya coast indicated that insect pests were considered to be the main production constraint. Over 70% of respondents mentioned stemborers to be the most important insect pest. Unlike the eggs and adults, stemborer larvae and pupae were frequently seen by farmers. Alternative gramineous host plants for pests were common near maize fields and were often not destroyed until after the first rains. Nearly all farmers left dry stems and stubble in the field after harvest. Farmers knew of many methods for controlling stemborers, but only 32 and 56% of farmers in Kilifi and Kwale Districts, respectively, used any of the methods. Chemical control was the most popular control method, being applied regularly by 19 and 38% of farmers in Kilifi and Kwale Districts, respectively. Traditional methods and cultural control methods were seldom used. Approximately 50% of farmers had heard of beneficial insects, with farmers collectively mentioning 17 predators of stemborers. Cocoons of the parasitoids Cotesia flavipes, released in a biological control programme in the study area in 1993, and the indigenous Cotesia sesamiae had been seen by 33% of respondents, but none knew what these were. The results of the present study stress the need to educate farmers about the biology and ecology of stemborers and the role of natural enemies. Also, after effective control methods suitable for resource-poor farmers have been identified, both groups should be trained in pest management methods, for example through the Farmers Field School approach.

A 1994 field survey of Sahelian grasshoppers and locust populations in natural vegetation, millet and rice fields in The Gambia determined the period between mid-August and early September to be the optimal time for applying oil-formulated conidia of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae var acridum to control the acridids. Locust and grasshopper cadavers were also examined for fungus infection. Metarhizium anisopliae was absent from cadavers of natural grasshopper populations, while the entomopathogenic fungus Entomophaga sp. was recovered on Hieroglyphus daganensis cadavers and the nematode Hexamermis sp. from Kraussaria angulifera, The predatory cattle egret fed on swarming adult desert locusts.

A survey involving more than 129 farmers was carried out in 1998 and 1999 in Ouémé, Benin, to investigate the importance of pests and diseases as constraints to cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) production. Results indicated that in the Ouémé valley Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. and Aphis craccivora Koch are specific concerns. Weeds such as justicia anselliana (Nees) T. Anders, Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal and Commelina erecta L. were also reported as being troublesome. On the Ouémé plateau Imperata cylindrica L. Beauv. was reported to be a major weed. Callosobruchus maculatus Fab. and Bruchidius atrolineatus Fab. may cause up to 100% loss within a few months in storage. Birds and rodents were also reported. In certain areas on the plateau, farmers have developed pest control methods based on indigenous knowledge. In the valley the population density of Eichhornia crassipes (Mart) Solms. during flooding is used by farmers to predict aphid infestation. A number of plant species used to protect cowpea were reported. In Gbékandji village, natural enemies such as Rhabdepyris sp., Evania sp., and Chelonus sp., were observed. They were rare in the valley, where farmers rely on chemical control. Farmers reported alternative hosts of cowpea pests from the families Fabaceae (eight species), Mimosaceae (two species), Ceasalpiniaceae (five species), Capparidaceae (two species) and Pontederiaceae (one species). Based on the hierarchy of constraints, sustainable integrated pest management technologies are being developed with farmers using a participatory approach.

Field surveys carried out in Mozambique showed that two indigenous cereal stemborers, Busseola fusca Fuller (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Sesamia calamistis Hampson (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and one exotic stemborer, Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), are the main pests of maize and sorghum in the country. Busseola fusca was abundant at high altitudes (> 800 m) and Ch. partellus was abundant at low altitudes (< 800 m). Sesamia calamistis occurred at all elevations but in low numbers. Of the three stemborers, Ch. partellus was the most widespread and abundant pest of maize followed by B. fusca. Therefore, a programme was initiated to introduce the exotic parasitoid Cotesia flavipes Cameron (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) to increase natural suppression of Ch. partellus populations. Cotesia flavipes was introduced into southern Mozambique for the first time in November 1996. Additional releases were subsequently carried out in several places in southern and central Moz imbique from 1998–2000. The parasitoid was recovered from all localities sampled 1 to 3 years after its introduction, indicating that this exotic parasitoid had established in the southern and central regions of Mozambique.

The immature stages of the predaceous mite Typhlodromus talbii Athias-Henriot are described. The mite was reared on different prey species and pollen in the laboratory, and its developmental parameters calculated. Tydeus californicus (Banks) was found to be the most suitable and nourishing diet, giving a shorter life cycle and higher female fecundity (8.8 days and 33.4 eggs respectively), than the scale insect Coccus acuminatum (Gennadius) (10.0 days and 24.8 eggs respectively) at 25 °C. Other associates of Typ. talbii, the eriophyid Cesaberoptus kenyae Keifer, the tetranychid Oligonychus mangiferus (R. & S.) as well as date palm and castor oil pollen, were unsuitable diet. When reared on moving stages of Tyd. californicus (Banks) at 70 ± 5 % RH, 16:8 (L:D) h photoperiod and temperatures of 15,20,25,28,30,32 and 35 °C, the total developmental time of Typ. talbii averaged 21.3, 12.4, 8.8, 7.6, 7.1, 5.8 and 11.6 days respectively. The intrinsic rate of natural increase (rm) and the net reproduction (Ro) reached maximum values of 0.299 individuals per female per day and 28.06 times respectively, at 32 °C.

Insecticidal δ-endotoxins of Bacillus thuringiensis, Cry IA (a, b and c) were prepared from over-expressing cells of Escherichia coli and bioassayed against the third instars (6-day-old) of the spotted bollworm, Earias vittella Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), using artificial diet. The median lethal concentration (LC50) values were calculated for 6 days of exposure to δ-endotoxins. Cry IA(a) was found to be the most toxic (LC50 141.2 ng/cm2) followed by Cry IA(a) and Cry IA(b) with LC50 values of 224.5 and 300.5 ng/cm2 respectively. A highly significant reduction in larval weight took place in the surviving larvae treated with sub-lethal doses of the insecticidal crystal proteins.

Neozygites floridana (Weiser & Muma) Remaudière & Keller and Hirsutella thompsonii Fisher are important fungal pathogens of mites on cassava in Benin. Bioassays were conducted to evaluate the influence of four concentrations (50, 100, 200 and 500 ppm) of a water-dispersible formulation (Gaucho 70 WS) of imidacloprid on the conidial germination of these two fungi. Imidacloprid significantly reduced the germination of primary conidia and formation of infective capilliconidia in N. floridana. In contrast, imidacloprid concentrations of 100 ppm and above increased conidial germination in H. thompsonii. Another bioassay was conducted to evaluate possible synergism between imidacloprid and H. thompsonii in the mortality of the cassava green mite, Mononychellus tanajoa (Bondar). Hirsutella thompsonii alone and in combination with imidacloprid both killed around 95% of the mites after five days. In contrast, the mortality of mites treated with imidacloprid alone was close to that of untreated mites, which was around 30% on the fifth day after treatment.

A study was conducted at Katumani, Kiboko and Ithookwe, in the semi-arid Eastern Province of Kenya for four seasons (short rains 1996-long rains 1998), to confirm the major stemborers of maize, and to introduce and monitor the colonisation of Cotesia flavipes Cameron (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) in these stemborers. About 6750 adults of Cotesia flavipes were released at each site, from ‘release stations’, starting one week after plant emergence and repeated fortnightly up to harvest. Pre-release parasitism of the stemborers was determined, for two seasons prior to release of Co. flavipes, during the season of release and one season after the release of this parasitoid. Parasitism was assessed from developmental stages of the stemborers recovered through destructive sampling of 100 plants, starting one week after plant emergence. This was repeated weekly at Katumani, and fortnightly at Kiboko and Ithookwe until harvest. The stemborers recovered from maize were Chilo partellus, Sesamia calamistis, Cryptophlebia leucotreta and Busseola fusca in descending order of abundance, with Ch. partellus being the most widespread stemborer. Cotesia flavipes parasitised and successfully colonised Ch. partellus and S. calamistis in the three sites during the season of release and one season post-release of the parasitoid. Parasitism by Co. flavipes ranged from 7.14–25.80 %. The colonisation rate of Co. flavipes in the two major stemborers in the semi-arid Eastern Province of Kenya suggests the high potential of this parasitoid in regulating populations of stemborers that attack maize in this region.