In order to make informed decisions about the timing of harvests of grass crops, it is helpful to be aware of the changes that are taking place in the crops as they grow. Most people growing grass commercially or experimentally have a general awareness of the more obvious changes. However, greater awareness and understanding should lead to greater precision and greater success in the relevant enterprises. The present review considers some of the more important changes that are of interest from an agricultural point of view and for which sufficient information is available in the scientific literature. It is intended for relevant students, lecturers, research workers, advisers and producers.

Farmers commonly apply slurry when soil conditions are suitable for spreading. In order to improve slurry nitrogen (N) use efficiency, effects of split application of pig slurry according to the crop N demand on yield were tested in 1994/95–2001/02. The crop rotation was winter oilseed rape (OSR) – winter wheat – winter barley. N was applied as pig slurry or as mineral N fertilizer (each of 0, 40 or 80 kg N/ha, total N amount: 0–240 kg N/ha) at three dates. Each year, the treatments occurred in all three crops of the rotation and were located on the same plots. On average, mineral N fertilizer led to higher grain yields in all crops (+0·33 t/ha in OSR, +0·57 t/ha in wheat, and +0·20 t/ha in barley) compared with slurry application, presumably due to a slower N mineralization of the organic fraction. However, the large year to year variation resulted in high error estimates, leading to no significant differences in yield. Taking only the ammonium amount of the slurry into account, there was no significant difference in yield between the two N sources. Yield potential was similar in both slurry and mineral N treatments, but higher N amounts were necessary on the slurry plots. Therefore, slurry N-use efficiency (NUE) remained lower than that of mineral N. However, compared with a single dose, growth-specific slurry application according to the crop demand, as made with mineral N fertilizers, increased NUE.

Inclusion in the diet of concentrations of vitamin E and selenium (Se) above requirement is associated with variable improvements in animal performance and immune function. At the cellular and molecular level, research in the last decade has produced a clearer understanding of the mechanisms underlying the multiple functions of vitamin E and Se and it is apparent that these functions extend beyond antioxidant protection. This paper reviews recent research relating to the functionality of vitamin E and Se in relation to the ewe and her lambs and attempts to relate this understanding to the whole animal level. Important aspects of this improved understanding are descriptions of three groups of seleno-proteins and the appreciation that there is a hierarchy in both the distribution of selenium between tissues and in the synthesis of different enzymes within tissues. In addition, there is diversity in the effects of vitamin E and Se derivatives on immune cell function. Given this heterogeneity in function it is not surprising that published responses for the production and health of ewes and lambs to supplementary vitamin E and selenium are variable and not always positive. Coupled with information on factors influencing variability in supply of vitamin E and Se from fresh and conserved forages and concentrate supplements, this review highlights the need for greater awareness of the importance of adequate supplementation of ewe and lamb diets with vitamin E and Se.

Experiments were conducted on sandy loam soils at Cambridge University Farm over the period 1989–99 to examine the effects of irrigation regime and variety on water uptake (WU) in potatoes. Unirrigated crops extracted water from considerable distances ahead of the rooting front but frequently watered crops took up water from depths shallower than the current depth of rooting. There was an increase in the extraction of soil water at depth if crops were irrigated less frequently at moderate (i.e. 40 mm) soil moisture deficits (SMD). The SMD measured at different positions across the ridge always differed and the relationship changed during the season. This is of concern since most reports on water use in potatoes are based on a single measurement position for the neutron probe in the centre of the ridge and this location over-estimates crop water use. Crops grown on the flat had a more uniform extraction of soil water across the row width than crops grown in ridges but there was no evidence that having one part of the rooting system drier than another affected overall crop water use. Once rooting systems were established to considerable depth, WU continued from deeper roots even though upper horizons were periodically re-wetted by irrigation. For this reason, it proved impossible to relate WU to rooting density in specific horizons over the course of the season. Only early in the season did the proportion of total WU correspond reasonably closely with the proportion of total root length in each horizon. It appeared that the pattern and extent of soil drying created by a crop changes the horizons where water is extracted at different growth stages and the relative rooting density in a particular horizon is not a good indicator of the potential to take up water from that depth. Although rooting density decreased rapidly with increasing depth, roots deeper in the profile contributed a considerable component of total crop water requirement irrespective of the water status of horizons closer to the soil surface.

A series of close relationships were established between the ratio of actual : potential evapotranspiration and SMD for different daily evaporative rates. These showed that there was a limiting deficit at which the ratio of actual : potential evapotranspiration decreased rapidly with increasing SMD and this limiting deficit was inversely related to daily evapotranspiration rate. However, even at small SMDs, as daily evapotranspiration rate increased there was a significant, slow decrease in actual : potential evapotranspiration ratio. In order to maintain potential evapotranspiration rates in conditions of extreme demand in the UK (e.g. 5–7 mm/day), crops need to be maintained at <25 mm deficit but allowable deficits can be increased as demand moderates.

Mixed intercropping of spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) with field pea (Pisum sativum L.), faba bean (Vicia faba var. minor L.) or narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.) was compared with sole cropping in two field experiments at different locations, on a sandy loam soil and a sandy soil, in Denmark in 2001.

Grain legumes were dominant in intercrops on the sandy loam soil, except for lupin, whereas barley was dominant in intercrops on the sandy soil site. Combined intercrop grain yields were comparable to grain yields of the respective sole cropped grain legume or sole cropped, fertilized barley on each soil site. On the sandy loam soil, pea–barley and faba bean–barley intercrops increased the proportion of plant N derived from N2 fixation in grain legumes and increased the barley grain N concentration (from 1·7 to 2·2 mg/g) compared with sole cropping. However, the later maturity of faba bean compared with barley caused problems at harvest. The grain N concentration of intercropped barley was increased where grain legumes were the dominant intercrops and not on the sandy soil site. Lupin-barley intercrops did not show intercropping advantages to the same degree as faba bean and pea, but lupin constituted a more stable yield proportion of the combined intercrop yield over locations.

Furthermore, the study indicated that the natural 15N abundance at certain locations might not always be sufficient to ensure a reliable estimate of N2 fixation using the 15N natural abundance method.

The rate of growth of individual seeds of soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill) is determined, in part, by the concentration of sucrose in the seed. Water stress during seed filling reduces photosynthesis, but the effect on seed sucrose concentration is not well understood. Soybean plants (cultivars Elgin 87 and Asgrow 232HS) were exposed to water stress from early in the seed-filling period until maturity in field and greenhouse experiments. Stress reduced yield (5–38%) and seed size (11–35%) but it did not affect the number of seeds. Stress accelerated leaf senescence as shown by a more rapid decline in leaf photosynthesis in both experiments. Seed-growth rate and cotyledon sucrose concentrations (expressed on a mM basis using the bulk water content of the cotyledons) during the linear phase of seed growth were not affected by stress in either experiment. Thus, water stress during seed filling had no direct effect on seed growth; its only effect was to accelerate leaf senescence, which shortened the seed-filling period and resulted in smaller seeds. Strategies to reduce yield loss from water stress during seed filling should focus on leaf senescence instead of seed growth.

Grass-legume associations may offer a way of improving the N efficiency of dairy farming, but may also have an adverse impact on the environment by increasing leaching losses. Nitrate leaching from four cropping sequences with different grassland frequency and management (long-term grazed, long-term cut, cereals followed by 1 and 2-year grazed leys) were investigated on a loamy sand in central Jutland for both unfertilized grass-clover (perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.)/white clover (Trifolium repens L.)) and fertilized perennial ryegrass (300 kg N/ha) swards during 1997–2002. Furthermore, 1 year (2001) of N2 fixation in 1-, 2- and 8-year-old grass-clover pastures was determined. Nitrate leaching from grazed unfertilized grass-clover was always considerably lower than from grazed fertilized ryegrass. The effect of grassland age on nitrate leaching was insignificant in grass-clover but clear in grazed ryegrass, where levels increased dramatically with sward age. In production years 6–8, leaching from grass-clover was only 9–13% of the comparable losses from ryegrass. Under the cutting regime grass-clover showed a significant reduction in both yield and N-removal with increasing sward age, whereas for ryegrass these figures did not show any decreasing trend. N2 fixation was lower in 8-year-old swards compared with fully established 2-year-old swards as a consequence of lower dry matter production, lower clover content and a lower proportion of clover-N derived from the atmosphere. The results from the present study indicate that the higher leaching losses observed in fertilized grass compared with unfertilized grass-clover systems were caused by (1) a reduction in N2-fixation in grass-clover over time and (2) a reduction in dry matter production in grass-clover over time, lowering the grazing intensity and the recycling of grassland N via animal excreta.

Three experiments have investigated the effect of the timing of control of infestations of volunteer barley (Hordeum vulgare), Stellaria media and Galium aparine on the growth and yield of winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus). Although the experiments used conventional herbicides to achieve the different timings of control, the work was done in the context of the commercialization of herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape, where treatments could be applied at any time from autumn to spring. In the three seasons studied, oilseed rape growth was particularly vigorous in the autumn and, as a consequence, the competitive impact of the weeds was lower than anticipated. Untreated volunteer barley and G. aparine reduced yields in one and two experiments, respectively. However, in all experiments volunteer barley reduced crop growth in winter and spring severely, even though January treatments prevented yield loss in these vigorous crops. Delayed control of this weed would not be advisable if the weed was particularly dense or the crop less vigorous. In contrast, the G. aparine had no effect on crop growth and was only really apparent in the crop in late summer, so delaying treatment until even March would not put yields at risk. In one year, S. media markedly reduced crop growth in late winter but in the second experiment this did not occur. Consequently, as with the G. aparine, delayed autumn control would be unlikely to jeopardize yields. Thus, if herbicide-tolerant crops are commercialized in Europe, there will be flexibility in timing of application of herbicides to control broad-leaved weeds in winter rape but there would be a risk of yield loss from delayed control of volunteer cereals.

In 1998/99 and 1999/2000, field trials were conducted to try to explain why grain legume yields and harvest index are more variable than many other crops. Treatments involved varying plant populations and sowing depths and were selected to maximize plant variability. Both yields and harvest index were variable. Total dry matter (TDM) production generally increased as plant population increased up to twice the optimum population. Increases ranged from 80 to 130% with lupins producing the highest yields of 878 and 972 g/m2 of TDM in 1998/99 and 1999/2000 respectively. While plants sown at 10 cm depth produced more TDM than did plants sown at 2 cm, the difference was only 3%. Seed yields followed similar trends to TDM, with maximum yields (mean of 403 g seed/m2) produced at twice the optimum population. Crop harvest index (CHI) was quite variable and ranged from 0·31 to 0·66. Crop HI was lowest (0·43) at the lowest population and increased to 0·55 at twice the optimum plant population. In both seasons, lentil had the highest CHI and lupin the lowest. While CHI was variable there were very close relationships between seed yield and TDM which suggested that maximum seed yield depends on maximizing TDM production. The results also suggest that growers should increase population by a factor of two to obtain maximum seed yields.

High spatial and temporal variability of nitrogen application via livestock urine on grazed pasture make meaningful measurement of leaching of nitrate very difficult. The present study was aimed at estimating the mean annual nitrogen loadings and concentrations leached to an underlying aquifer beneath unfertilized irrigated and non-irrigated paddocks of a dairy farm at OB Flat 10 km south of the city of Mount Gambier (37°50′S, 140°40′E), South Australia. Urine was collected in the milking shed and applied to 1 m deep monolith lysimeters in three separate seasons in 1992. Some lysimeters received two applications. Drainage and N fluxes and concentrations were recorded 1 year before urine application and for 3 years following urine applications. A negative binomial function was used to specify the appropriate proportions of pasture subject to 0, 1 or 2 loadings in a year, and the lysimeter drainage measurements were then scaled across seasons and paddock area to estimate mean annual leaching under the whole of each paddock. It was found that the timing of urine application had a profound effect on the leaching of nitrogen. Results indicated that the nitrate flux leaching from the root zone in the irrigated paddock was 26–33 kg N/ha/year at 13–17 mg N/litre and in the non-irrigated paddock, 10–13 kg N/ha/year at 9–11 mg N/litre. These estimates are not inconsistent with nitrate concentrations measured in groundwater but cannot be independently verified. The current transition from non-irrigated to irrigated pastures is likely to double nitrogen loads to the aquifer and cause nitrate concentrations in groundwater to exceed drinking water guidelines, unless alternative pasture management strategies are developed.

Increasing crop competitiveness using higher seeding rates is a possible technique for weed management in low input and organic farming systems or when herbicide resistance develops in weeds. A range of wheat seeding rates were sown and resulted in crop densities between 50–400 plants/m2 (current recommendations are 100–150 plants/m2) in the presence and absence of annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum Gaud.) in three wheat cultivars at nine experiments in southern Australia. Wheat densities of at least 200 plants/m2 were required to suppress L. rigidum and to a lesser extent increase crop yield across a wide range of environments (seasonal rainfall between 200–420 mm) and weed densities (50–450 L. rigidum plants/m2). Doubling crop density of all cultivars from 100 to 200 plants/m2 halved L. rigidum dry weight (averaged over all experiments) from 100 g/m2 to about 50 g/m2. Higher crop densities gave diminishing marginal reductions in weed biomass, while cultivar differences in weed suppression were small. Grain yields ranged from 0·5 t/ha to over 5 t/ha depending on site and season. Maximum yields in the weed-free plots (averaged over environments and cultivars) were at 200 crop plants/m2, and yield declined only slightly by 4–5% at densities up to 425 plants/m2. In the weedy plots grain yield continued to increase up to the highest density but at a slower rate. The percentage yield loss from weed competition was of a smaller magnitude than the suppression of L. rigidum by wheat. For example, 100 wheat plants/m2 led to an average 23% yield loss compared with 17% at 200 plants/m2, and the probability of reduced crop grain size and increased proportion of small seeds was negligible at these densities. Cultivar differences in yield loss from weed competition were small compared with differences due to crop density. Adoption of higher wheat seed rates as part of integrated weed management is now strongly promoted to farmers.

The productivity and N budget of three crop rotations were determined in a field study beginning in 1997. A duplicate experiment was initiated in 1998; each experiment lasted 3 years. The rotations were: continuous wheat (WWW), oilseed rape-wheat-wheat (RWW) and pea-wheat-wheat (PWW). Wheat and oilseed rape received 0 or 60 kg N/ha, apart from fertilized wheat following pea, which received 22·5 kg N/ha, and in the third year of the rotation all plots received 60 kg N/ha. Peak N2 fixation by pea averaged 86 kg N/ha and grain N offtake was 74 kg N/ha. In the spring following the unfertilized crops the trend for soil NO3-N was: pea>oilseed rape>wheat. The yields of second and third phase wheat followed the order: PWW>WWW>RWW. The superior yield of second phase wheat following pea is attributed to greater availability of N, mainly below the 25 cm depth of soil. Yields of second phase wheat of the other rotations showed no response to N fertilizer, probably because of dry surface soil in those years. Nitrogen deficits of the no-N treatments over the rotation cycle were 31 kg/ha for PWW and RWW and 87 kg/ha for WWW. Application of N fertilizer reduced the N deficit to 13 kg/ha for PWW and resulted in N gains of 22 kg/ha for WWW and 82 kg/ha for RWW. Oilseed rape yields of this study were much lower than normal for the region, thus N removal in the grain was low. It is concluded that pea is superior to oilseed rape as a break crop, and to maintain N balance through the rotation, wheat following pea required about 20 kg/ha less fertilizer N than was applied to wheat following non-legume crops.

Seven genetically diverse pepper inbred lines were crossed in a half diallel to evaluate the performance of hybrids and determine heterosis over mid-parent, high-parent and standard control for various characteristics. The study was undertaken in the field and greenhouse using a randomized complete block design with three replications during 2001/02. Hybrids generally showed good overall performance for most of the characteristics compared with the inbred lines. Three of the 21 hybrids significantly out-yielded the standard control (Bakko Local). Five of the inbred lines and all the hybrids were earlier to flower and mature compared with the control. Substantial mid-parent (MPH), high-parent (HPH) and standard (SH) heterosis were observed for the majority of characteristics studied. Mean MPH and SH were high and positive for fruit yield, plant height, fruit diameter, fruit weight, pericarp thickness and fruit number per plant. High positive HPH was observed in fruit yield per plant and plant height. For days to flowering, days to maturity and fruit maturation period, the overall mean MPH, HPH and SH were negative. It was concluded that pepper hybrids of higher yield potential, good fruit characteristics and early maturation can be developed from appropriate parents.

The effects of plant population (one-tenth of the optimum to four times the optimum populations in 1998/99 and 10–400 plants/m2 in 1999/2000) and sowing depth (2, 5 and 10 cm) on yield and yield components of four grain-legumes (Cicer arietinum, Lens culinaris, Lupinus angustifolius and Pisum sativum) were studied. Seed yields were strongly positively correlated with the number of pods and seeds/m2 in both years in all species. The mean seed weight and number of branches/plant were inversely related to plant population. There was a nearly six-fold reduction in the number of branches/plant as plant population increased, which was due to restricted branching, and not to branch senescence. Generally, the variation in yield components was species dependent. However, for all species the number of pods/m2 and seeds/m2 could be used as primary criteria for selection in a breeding programme.

Four field experiments over 2 years investigated whether wheat hybrids had higher nitrogen-use efficiency (NUE) than their parents over a range of seed rates and different N regimes. There was little heterosis for total N in the above-ground biomass (NYt), but there was high-parent heterosis for grain N yields (NYg) in two of the hybrids, Hyno Esta and Hyno Rista, associated with greater nitrogen harvest index (NHI). Overall, the hybrids did not significantly increase the total dry matter produced per unit N in the above-ground crop (NUtEt), but did increase the grain dry matter per unit N in the above ground crop (NUtEg). The improvement in NUtEg was at the partial detriment of grain N concentration. Heterosis for grain NYg in Hyno Esta was lower at zero-N, suggesting that it did not achieve higher yields through more efficient capture or utilization of N. The greater NHI in Hyno Esta appeared to be facilitated by both greater N uptake, and remobilization of N from vegetative tissues, after anthesis.

The response of N efficiency and uptake to seed rate was dependent on N supply and season. Where N fertilizer was applied, N uptake over time was slower at the lower seed rates, but where N was withheld N capture at the lowest seed rate soon approached the N capture of the higher seed rates. During grain filling, the rate of accumulation of N into the grain increased with seed rate and the duration of N accumulation decreased with seed rate. With N applied, N yields increased to an asymptote with seed rate, when N was withheld there was little response of N yields to seed rate. In 2002, N utilization efficiency (NUtEt and NUtEg) also increased asymptotically with seed rate, but in 2003 seed rate had little effect on N utilization efficiency. When nitrogen fertilizer had not been applied, NHI consistently decreased with increasing seed rate. The timing of N application made little difference to NUE, NY, or NUtE.

Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) was used to analyse the crude protein content of dried and milled samples of wheat and to discriminate samples according to their stage of growth. A calibration set of 72 samples from three growth stages of wheat (tillering, heading and harvest) and a validation set of 28 samples was collected for this purpose. Principal components analysis (PCA) of the calibration set discriminated groups of samples according to the growth stage of the wheat. Based on these differences, a classification procedure (SIMCA) showed a very accurate classification of the validation set samples: all of them were successfully classified in each group using this procedure when both the residual and the leverage were used in the classification criteria. Looking only at the residuals all the samples were also correctly classified except one of tillering stage that was assigned to both tillering and heading stages. Finally, the determination of the crude protein content of these samples was considered in two ways: building up a global model for all the growth stages, and building up local models for each stage, separately. The best prediction results for crude protein were obtained using a global model for samples in the two first growth stages (tillering and heading), and using a local model for the harvest stage samples.

Two field experiments examined the nutritional responses of the white lupin (Lupinus albus L.) agronomic cultivar Lucyanne to lime-amended soil. In the first, plots and boundaries of a pre-existing lime-rate experiment were sampled in 1993. The maximum shoot dry matter production occurred between soil pH 4·9 and 7·2. Whole-shoot Al concentrations increased below soil pH 4·9, and plants died at pH 4·4. Although dry matter production declined in soil above pH 7·2, no chlorosis or plant death was seen. Only the whole-shoot soluble Ca concentration changed from neutral to alkaline pH soil: it was greatest when grown in the alkaline-pH soil. In the second experiment, plants were grown in neutral pH or limed soil in 2000. Shoots were divided into specific tissue types and analysed for Fe III and Fe II, as well as soluble and insoluble Ca fractions. When sampled in April after over-wintering, the higher Ca concentration in the limed compared with neutral-pH soil-grown plants was due mainly to insoluble Ca. No plants were chlorotic and no differences between the treatments in the concentrations of either form of Fe were found. In June no plants were chlorotic, however the concentrations of both total and soluble Ca fractions were greater in the limed than the neutral-pH soil-grown plants, and there was more stem Fe III and less leaf Fe II in these plants. The present study shows that the cultivar Lucyanne is not a reliable crop plant above pH 7·2, and the loss of shoot dry matter can be attributed to nutritional responses at a sub-chlorotic level of stress.

The success of GM herbicide tolerant canola is demonstrated by its acceptance by the farm community in Canada. There have been continuing comments, however, including some from major customers, suggesting that GM canola has lower quality than conventional canola. Data drawn from both the Western Canada Canola/Rapeseed Co-operative Test data from 1998–2001 and from the Canadian Grain Commission's harvest surveys of canola from 1996–2001 were used to compare the quality of GM and conventional canola registered and grown. Weed seed contamination of harvest survey samples decreased significantly as the herbicide tolerant lines increased in production. While variety registration data suggested GM and conventional lines had no differences in oil content, data from harvest surveys suggested that GM lines tended to have slightly higher oil contents. Protein and oil contents remain inversely related with no differences in the inverse relationship due to GM. While registration requires that all lines have less than 12 micromoles per gram of glucosinolates, data from harvest surveys show GM lines to have significantly less glucosinolates than conventional lines, possibly due to decreased contamination with cruciferous weeds. A comparison of glucosinolate contents between non-GM herbicide tolerant canola and conventional non-herbicide tolerant canola showed similar differences. There were no significant differences in chlorophyll content, erucic acid levels or saturated fatty acids but harvest survey data showed GM lines were slightly more unsaturated than conventional lines. It would seem safe to conclude that differences in quality between GM and conventional canola are due to the functioning of the GM trait – herbicide tolerance – that allows the GM canola to perform to its potential in the field.

Field work on rainfed cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. cvs TC-9-6 and M-28-6-6) was conducted in the Orinoco lowlands to explain the changes in dry-mass partitioning and radiation-use efficiency (RUE) as compared with other cultivars over four consecutive seasons. Growth features were assessed in early-maturing, prostrate-canopy (TC-9-6), and medium-maturing, erect-canopy (M-28-6-6) cowpeas. These cultivars were sown in consecutive middle-wet and late-wet seasons in double peak rainfall conditions. Dry mass accumulation by cultivars was assessed as a function of leaf-area duration and the efficiency with which radiation was converted into dry mass throughout the season (i.e. radiation-use efficiency). Cultivar differences in canopy architecture and duration of leaf area had a minor effect on the total dry mass production. In the early-maturing TC-9-6, RUE for a middle-wet and a late-wet season was 0·90±0·04 and 0·65±0·05 g/MJ, respectively. In the medium-maturing M-28-6-6, the values were 0·97±0·05 and 0·72±0·03 g/MJ, respectively. A season with rainfall below 100 mm had a negative effect on phenology and RUE. When average rainfall was above 100 mm, the total dry mass accumulation was not affected by differences in cultivars and seasons. The rate of harvest index (HI) changes was negatively related to pod-filling duration. The changes in assimilation distribution depended on the process of partitioning as modulated by the limited pod-sink and the photosynthate supply. However, the photosynthate source was not depressed by the sink activity of the pod-filling. Partitioning to non-reproductive sinks was maintained. M-28-6-6 with high dry-mass production and delayed senescence did not effectively divert a large amount of assimilate to pod-filling. Pod sink activity in cowpea was limited by genotype. Harvest index in M-28-6-6 decreased with the increasing dry mass. The final HI and rate of linear increase in HI differed between cultivars and were lower in M-28-6-6. The results of the present work in the Orinoco lowlands are relevant for a wide range of savannahs with a late wet season.

On the basis of Finnish statutory variety trial data, the contribution of new varieties to cereal yields has been investigated. Such data have been collected since 1973. The data used contained the results of 2037 field trials testing 224 new barley cultivars, 163 new oat cultivars, 154 new spring wheat cultivars, 48 new winter wheat cultivars and 52 new winter rye cultivars. The data indicated a continuous increase in the annual yield of all the cereal species. The increase could be attributed in part to the genetic improvement of varieties and in part to changes in farming practices and environmental conditions. By using modern mixed model techniques it was possible to separate the effects due to genetic improvement from those due to the other factors. The main results show that in 1973–2003, new varieties contributed to an increase of 0·64, 0·41, 1·01, 0·63 and 0·97%, respectively, in the mean annual yield of barley, oats, spring wheat, winter wheat and winter rye. The research approach was based solely on existing data; new field experiments were not needed.