We investigated the effect of different types of mother-young contacts (fenceline, restricted and no contact) on the health, growth performance, behaviour and physiological state of Murrah buffalo calves. A total of 24 calves were allocated to three groups of 8: NCM (no calf–mother contact), RCM (restricted calf–mother contact) and FCM (fenceline calf–mother contact). At three months of age, the FCM calves had a higher average body weight (58.6 ± 1.5 kg) than the RCM (52.8 ± 1.3 kg) and NCM (53.6 ± 1.3 kg) calves (P < 0.05). The average daily gain (ADG) at three months of age was greater in FCM (0.6 ± 0.1 kg/d) than RCM (0.5 ± 0.1 kg/d) and NCM (0.5 ± 0.1 kg/d) calves (P < 0.05). The mean immunoglobulin G (IgG) concentrations were significantly greater on d 7, 28, 42 and d 56 of sampling (P < 0.05 for all comparisons) in FCM than RCM and NCM calves. The mean cortisol levels were highest in the NCM calves followed by RCM and the lowest values were observed in FCM calves on d 0, d 7, d 28, d 42 and d 56, respectively (P < 0.05, for all recorded days). The diarrhoea score and eggs per gram of faeces (EPG) were significantly greater in the NCM group compared to the RCM and FCM groups. The time spent in cross sucking, licking inanimate objects and self-licking was greatest (P < 0.05) in NCM calves, followed by RCM calves, and was almost non-existent in the FCM group on all the recorded weeks. Time spent in backward ear position was greater (P < 0.05) in FCM than RCM and NCM calves. The average time spent in forward ear position was greatest (P < 0.05) in the RCM calves followed by NCM with the lowest time observed in FCM calves. The mean duration of time spent by calves in the asymmetrical and axial ear position differed significantly (P < 0.05) among NCM, RCM and FCM calves, P < 0.05. The full and fenceline buffalo calf–mother contact system showed higher growth rates, lower levels of stress responses, oral stereotypies and eggs per gram of faeces. In addition, ear postures may be used as a dependable, and reliable measure of positive, low arousal emotional states.

A series of experiments is described, outlining a study of 5 factors likely to influence the efficiency and reproducibility of a standardized method used for the electronic counting of somatic cells in milk. Samples containing cells covering 5 ranges from 250000 cells/ml to 1500000 cells/ml were used and the results analysed statistically.

The residual error was given special consideration, and was found not to contribute to any significant degree to the accuracy of the method. Sample volumes of 0·5 ml and 0·1 ml used for counting were compared, and there was a decrease in accuracy using the smaller volume. The influence of individual technician skill was studied with 4 workers having differing degrees of experience, and no significant addition to the overall error was observed. The effect of agitating bulk tank milk for between 0 and 2 min before sampling was examined. Variations were considerable for agitation times of less than 1 min, but the recommended mixing time of 2 min was found to be adequate with milk quantities between 450 l and 2250 l (100 and 500 gal), and at the 5 cell-count levels chosen.

The distributions of the cell counts at the 5 levels were found to be normal with the marginal exception of samples tested at 250000 cells/ml.

All aspects of the technique, sample preparation, use and calibration of the Coulter Counter, etc, should be closely followed to ensure that no inaccuracies will result from inadequate maintenance of the machine or other equipment employed in the test.

The collection of samples of milk from individual quarters has usually been done either by hand milking or by sampling by hand at the commencement of milking, before the application of the teat-cups for milking by machine. The former method is laborious, and may not be entirely accurate, as it depends a great deal on constant care throughout the milking to ensure that each quarter is milked into the correct container. If the quarters are milked separately by hand, the yield of milk from the individual quarters may be affected, and if the cow is not accustomed to being milked by hand, hand milking for quarter sampling may disturb her, and affect the yield, and so the composition of the milk. Quarter sampling by hand before the commencement of machine milking does not provide a representative sample of the yield of milk from the quarter, and it does not permit a measurement of quantity of milk produced by each quarter. In connexion with some work on the composition of milk from quarters showing a positive brom-thymol blue test (Hume(i), McDowall(2, 3)) and on the influence of such milk on the quality of cheese and butter made from it (McDowall(4)); the collection of full quarter samples of milk on a considerable scale was required. For this purpose a special milking-machine claw, a milking-machine bucket, and a strip bucket were constructed. These are illustrated in Fig. 1, I–IV.

Levels of Cu and Fe in fresh milk and in bulk pasteurized milk were measured. The endogenous levels varied during the lactation period. The level of Cu in bulk pasteurized milk was greater than the endogenous level, suggesting some contamination. This apparent Cu contamination was greater in winter than in summer. No similar contamination was observed with Fe. The levels of Cu and Fe in butter manufactured each month and in retail butter were measured. Higher levels of Cu were detected in ripened cream butter produced in winter compared to that produced in summer. No similar trend was evident for Fe in ripened cream butter. Very low levels of Cu, Fe and lipid oxidation were detected in Irish sweet cream butter and consequently Cu and Fe contamination and resultant oxidation are not a problem in this product.

The destruction of vitamin C in milk under the action of light was studied in different containers. Brown glass bottles showed little destruction, green glass bottles considerably more, and wax impregnated cartons still more. Nevertheless, in the latter, twice as much vitamin C survived as in clear glass bottles.

The C.O.B. test has been carried out at 15 min. intervals on raw milk samples stored at 20°C. to examine worker and replicate variability. Within experimental limitations, the differences between workers were not significant (P>0·05) and, in general, good agreement was found between the five replicates examined for each milk sample, coefficients of variation less than 4·0%. The change from absence to presence of a precipitate generally occurred with successive tests, but there were indications that the times to increased intensity of clotting differed with samples.

Captain H. Barkworth was responsible for the plan and design of these experiments which were carried out by members of his staff at Shardlow.

The main objective of this experiment was to evaluate the effects of two milking intervals (8 and 16 h) on milk constituents (fat, protein, lactose, dry matter, and log10 SCC) of nineteen Istrian × Awassi × East-Friesian crossbred ewes in different milk fractions (0–25, 25–50, 50–75 and 75–100%) during the course of milking and in machine stripping (MS) milk. Furthermore, we sought to determine the effect of the two milking intervals on milking characteristics (average milk flow rate, peak milk flow rate, machine-on time, total milk yield, and milk production rate) and whether each milk constituent within each milking interval is best described by a linear, quadratic, or cubic function. Average milk flow rate and milk yield per milking decreased in the 8 h milking interval compared to the 16 h milking interval (P < 0.05). Peak milk flow rate, machine-on time, and milk production rate were not different between the two milking intervals. Overall, milk fat content, dry matter content, and log10 SCC increased in the 8 h milking interval compared to the 16 h milking interval (P < 0.05). Milk protein content did not change through the main milk fractions at either milking interval. Milk lactose content did not change through the milk fractions at the 8 h milking interval, whereas it decreased in the 75–100% and stripping milk fractions at the 16 h milking interval (P < 0.05). The 0–25% and stripping milk fractions contained the highest log10 SCC compared to all other milk fractions (P < 0.05). Changes of milk fat and dry matter content throughout milking were best described by quadratic functions, whereas milk protein content, milk lactose content, and log10 SCC were best described by different functions depending on the milking interval. These results demonstrate that milking interval influenced all milk constituents in various milk fractions during the course of ewe milking. Moreover, milking characteristics such as average milk flow and total milk yield, and the appropriate mathematical function to characterize milk constituents throughout a milking, were affected by milking interval.

Milk quotas, based on an average fat content, severely limit milk production on UK farms. Predictions of the time-course of lactation are incorporated into most computerized herd management programs but these models take no account of food inputs, body weight change or milk composition. Dynamic models are generally used to simulate metabolic pathways and, as such, have little direct relevance to commercial milk production. Dynamic models can be converted to an adaptive-predictive model that partitions food energy into milk and non-milk constituents. This paper reports the development of an adaptive-predictive model to partition food into milk and non-milk components. Additional functions further partition milk energy into the principal constituents, fat, protein and lactose.

In order to compare the old and the modified methods of the methyleneblue reduction test, 185 samples of raw milk were examined. We followed Wilson's method absolutely, but included two tubes in each test, one of which was inverted and the other not.

The results obtained and their interpretation agreed with the theoretical expectations given in our previous paper, and briefly outlined at the beginning of the present paper.

It is found that the deviations in the reduction time, corresponding to a given initial number of cells, are smaller by the modified than by the old method, and that the average time of reduction is shorter.

The smaller variation in the reduction time corresponding to a given number of cells at the beginning of the test is due probably to a more uniform distribution of the bacteria in the milk following the inversion of the tube. Wilson's suggestion that the shortening of the reduction time in the modified method is due to the stimulation of bacterial growth proves to be entirely correct. We obtained the average coefficients of multiplication in the old method of 0·660, and in the modified of 0·885.

Our results confirm on the whole the positive value of the modification of the methylene-blue reduction test as suggested and worked out by Wilson.

The technique of paper chromatography of bacterial extracts has been successfully applied to the routine examination of lactobacilli from cheese. One hundred and nine strains isolated on selective media have been grouped by their chromatogram patterns, and selected strains from these groups have been shown to have biochemical characteristics giving relationships which are in agreement with the chromatogram groupings. The results indicate that the technique can be used routinely for the rapid identification of strains of lactobacilli.

The results reported suggest that it is possible to follow the ripening of Parmesan cheese by means of histochemical reactions for proteins, glycoproteins, acid mucopolysaccharides and lipids containing choline.

The blue colour, formed when the proteins of the curd were stained with Bonhag's reagent, slowly turned to violet and then to red as ripening progressed.

Glycoproteins and acid mucopolysaccharides, although present in very small amounts, appeared to be a constant characteristic of the cheese.

Lipids containing choline, which were absent from the curd, were clearly visible in 3 to 7-month-old cheese. They then decreased and were absent in the ripened cheese.