The precise geolocation of buried unexploded ordnance (UXO) is a significant component of the detection, characterization, and remediation process. Traditional geolocation methods associated with these procedures are inefficient in helping to distinguish buried UXO from relatively harmless geologic magnetic sources or anthropic clutter items such as exploded ordnance fragments and agricultural or industrial artefacts. The integrated INS/GPS geolocation system can satisfy both high spatial resolution and robust, uninterrupted positioning requirements for successful UXO detection and characterization. To maximize the benefits from this integration, non-linear filtering strategies (such as the unscented Kalman filter) have been developed and tested using laboratory data. In addition, adaptive filters and smoothers have been designed to address variable or inaccurate a priori knowledge of the process noise of the system during periods of GPS unavailability. In this paper, we study and compare the improvement in the geolocation accuracy when the neural network approach is applied to aid the adaptive versions of the extended Kalman filter (EKF) and the unscented Kalman filter (UKF). The test results show that the neural network based filters can improve overall position accuracy and can homogenize the performance of the integrated system over a range of relatively quiet to dynamic environments. Navigation-grade and medium-grade IMUs were compared and, with standard smoothing applied to the new filters, geolocation accuracy of 5 cm (13 cm) was achieved with the navigation- (medium-) grade unit within 8-second intervals that lack external control, which is at or close to the area-mapping accuracy requirement for UXO detection.

In this paper we assume that we have measurements of a first difference of a typical satellite navigation carrier phase differential, which is a homogeneous quadratic function of the components of the attitude quaternion. We illustrate the determination of large or sustained attitudes using a dedicated unscented Kalman filter. The unscented Kalman filter structure was chosen for the dedicated filter because of its derivative free nature and other advantages. When a Gaussian distributed vector random variable is transformed to an equivalent quaternion it does not continue to be Gaussian distributed. For this reason, a new predictor-corrector form of the unscented Kalman filter is proposed to maintain the normalization of the unscented mean quaternion estimate in the presence of additive disturbances. The results from our realistic simulations indicate that the large attitude of a spacecraft can be estimated to within 0·1% accuracy over large time frames. The filter is particularly useful for autonomous operations of spacecraft as well as in other applications where the process model is bilinear or second order in the states.

The objective of this paper is to explore a hybrid Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) architecture that efficiently meets the stringent needs of safety of life systems. An architecture is proposed that allocates error bounding and alerting functionality between the space, ground and user segments based on refining the assumptions of the leading-order fault free error sources expected in the near future from developing GNSS technologies. By revisiting the first principles used to derive standard RAIM fault detection, a modified detection algorithm is developed to more accurately accommodate these new fault-free error distributions while supporting timely user alerts. The results of the analysis and simulation indicate that this optimized receiver algorithm and associated architecture can provide significant development and operational benefit for navigation users requiring high levels of integrity.

This paper proposes a novel mechanism for the initial alignment of low-cost INS aided by GPS. For low-cost INS, the initial alignment is still a challenging issue because of the high noises from low-cost inertial sensors. In this paper, a two-stage Kalman Filtering mechanism is proposed for the initial alignment of low-cost INS. The first stage is designed for the coarse alignment. To solve the problems encountered by the general coarse alignment approach, an INS error dynamic accounting for unknown initial heading error is developed, and the corresponding observation equation, taking into account the unknown heading error, is also developed. The second stage is designed for the fine alignment, where the classical INS error dynamics based on small attitude error is used. Experimental results indicate that the proposed alignment approach can complete the initial alignment more quickly and more accurately compared with the conventional approach.

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) is a method, used by an aircraft's receiver, for detecting and isolating faulty satellites of the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). In order for a receiver to be able to detect and isolate a faulty satellite using a RAIM algorithm, a couple of conditions must be met: a minimum number of satellites, and an adequate satellite geometry. Due to the highly predictable orbits of the GPS satellites, a RAIM availability prediction can be done easily. A number of RAIM methods exist; however, none of them takes into account the precise terrain masking of the satellites for the specific location. They consider a uniform fixed mask angle over the whole horizon. This paper will introduce the variable mask RAIM algorithm in order to show to what extent the terrain can affect the RAIM availability and how much it differs from the conventional algorithms.

An approximation procedure is described, which greatly simplifies dead reckoning on a tortuous path. The journey is divided into N segments of equal length, L. The overall direction is approximately the average direction of the segments. The net distance is approximately NL[1-var(α)/2], where var(α) is the variance (in radians squared) of bearings, αi, corresponding to the segments, and must be less than 0·7. Propagation of random errors is discussed. In a case study in sub-tropical rainforest the technique gives an estimated position whose associated circle of 68% confidence has a radius of about 10% of the net distance.

With the existing GPS, the replenishment of GLONASS and the launching of Galileo there will be three satellite navigation systems in the future, with a total of more than 80 satellites. So it can be expected that the performance of the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) will be greatly improved, especially in urban environments. This paper studies the potential benefits of GPS/GLONASS/Galileo integration in an urban canyon – Hong Kong. The navigation performances of four choices (GPS alone, GPS+GLONASS, GPS+Galileo and GPS+GLONASS+Galileo) are evaluated in terms of availability, coverage, and continuity based on simulation. The results show that there are significant improvements in availability, coverage and continuity, by using GPS+GLONASS+Galileo compared with the other choices. But the performance is still not good enough for most navigation applications in urban environments.

These days, Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) technology plays a critical role in positioning and navigation applications. Use of GNSS is becoming more of a need to the public. Therefore, much effort is needed to make the civilian part of the system more accurate, reliable and available, especially for the safety-of-life purposes. With the recent revitalization of Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS), with a constellation of 20 satellites in August 2009 and the promise of 24 satellites by 2010, it is worthwhile concentrating on the GLONASS system as a method of GPS augmentation to achieve more reliable and accurate navigation solutions.

Integration of Global Positioning System (GPS) and Inertial Navigation System (INS) technologies can overcome the drawbacks of the individual systems. One of the advantages is that the integrated solution can provide continuous navigation capability even during GPS outages. However, bridging the GPS outages is still a challenge when Micro-Electro-Mechanical System (MEMS) inertial sensors are used. Methods being currently explored by the research community include applying vehicle motion constraints, optimal smoother, and artificial intelligence (AI) techniques. In the research area of AI, the neural network (NN) approach has been extensively utilised up to the present. In an NN-based integrated system, a Kalman filter (KF) estimates position, velocity and attitude errors, as well as the inertial sensor errors, to output navigation solutions while GPS signals are available. At the same time, an NN is trained to map the vehicle dynamics with corresponding KF states, and to correct INS measurements when GPS measurements are unavailable. To achieve good performance it is critical to select suitable quality and an optimal number of samples for the NN. This is sometimes too rigorous a requirement which limits real world application of NN-based methods.

The support vector machine (SVM) approach is based on the structural risk minimisation principle, instead of the minimised empirical error principle that is commonly implemented in an NN. The SVM can avoid local minimisation and over-fitting problems in an NN, and therefore potentially can achieve a higher level of global performance. This paper focuses on the least squares support vector machine (LS-SVM), which can solve highly nonlinear and noisy black-box modelling problems. This paper explores the application of the LS-SVM to aid the GPS/INS integrated system, especially during GPS outages. The paper describes the principles of the LS-SVM and of the KF hybrid method, and introduces the LS-SVM regression algorithm. Field test data is processed to evaluate the performance of the proposed approach.

The purpose of this paper is to analyse the significance of the human element in accidents involving Greek-flagged ships, during 1993–2006, worldwide. In this context, the human element as a general factor of accident initiation and most importantly its constituent components, in the form of specific onboard duties (functions) and/or off-board (mainly ashore) entities, were presented and analysed. It was found that 57·1% of all accidents were attributed to the human element, whereas 75·8% of the latter were detected onboard and 80·4% of the onboard human-induced accidents were linked to errors and violations of the ship's master. Furthermore, since the timeframe examined covers the implementation of the ISM Code, the current analysis was aimed at producing valuable information with regard to its effectiveness upon Greek shipping. In this respect, a 12·2% reduction of human-caused accidents has been found during the post-ISM period. Finally, the association between specific accident types and human element components was examined utilising the technique of correspondence analysis and it was found that groundings and collisions were closely related to the ship's Master, whereas mechanical failures and fires were associated with the engine officers, and cargo shifts and flooding with bridge officers.

Classically difficult positioning environments often call for augmentation technology to assist the GPS, or more generally the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) technology. The “Locata” ground-based ranging technology offers augmentation, and even replacement, to GPS in such environments. However, like any other system relying on wireless technology, a Locata positioning network also faces issues in the presence of RF interference (RFI). This problem is magnified due to the fact that Locata operates in the licence-free 2·4 GHz Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) band. The licence-free nature of this band attracts a much larger number of devices using a wider range of signal types than for licensed bands, resulting in elevation of the noise floor. Also, harmonics from out-of-band signals can act as potential interferers. WiFi devices operating in this band have been identified as the most likely potential interferer, due partially to their use of the whole ISM band, but also because Locata applications often also may use a wireless network. This paper evaluates the performance of Locata in the presence of both narrow- and wide-band interfering signals. Effects of received interference on both raw measurements and final solutions are reported and analysed. Test results show that Locata performance degrades in the presence of received interference. It is also identified that high levels of received interference can affect Locata carriers even if the interference is not in co-frequency situation with the affected carrier. Finally, Locata characteristics have been identified which can be exploited to mitigate RFI issues.

Time-domain simulation of ship manoeuvring has been utilized in risk analysis to assess the effect of changes to the ship-lane, development in traffic volume and the associated risk. The process of ship manoeuvring in a wider socio-technical context consists of the technical systems, operational procedures, the human operators and support functions. Automated manoeuvring simulations without human operators in the simulation loop have often been preferred in simulation studies due to the low time required for simulations. Automatic control has represented the human element with little effort devoted to explain the relationship between the guidance and control algorithms and the human operator which they replace. This paper describes the development and application of a model for the human element for autonomous time-domain manoeuvring simulations. The method is applicable in the time-domain, modular and found to be capable of reproducing observed manoeuvre patterns, but limited to represent the intended behaviour.

Marine traffic survey is a fundamental part of marine traffic engineering. In the assessment of the safety or effectiveness in particular water areas, the distribution of ship tracks is always included as one of the most significant results of a marine traffic survey. In this paper, methods of marine traffic survey are discussed and an appropriate method is selected to obtain the traffic data considering the available research circumstances in China. A semi-automatic artificial way of plotting a distribution diagram of ship tracks is presented with illustrations. Details of the diagram plotted by using the collected traffic data are described for reference.

This paper examines the evidence to support the view that the inability of seamen to determine accurate longitude at sea in sailing ships was a major factor in the loss of ships and crews that was effectively solved by the introduction of the marine chronometer. It concludes that this was not the case and that a more compelling factor for the safety of ships was the introduction of mechanical propulsion systems.

Low-cost, single-frequency GPS systems provide economical positioning solutions to many geomatics applications, including GIS and low-accuracy surveying applications. Unfortunately however, the positioning accuracy obtained with those systems is not sufficient for many surveying applications. This is mainly due to the presence of ionospheric delay and multipath. In this research ionospheric delay is accounted for using regional high-resolution ionospheric maps produced by the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The major remaining constraint and challenging problem is multipath. This is because multipath is environmentally-dependent, difficult to model mathematically and cannot be reduced through differential positioning. This research proposes a new approach to identify multipath-contaminated L1 measurements through wavelet analysis. First, the difference between the code and carrier-phase measurements is estimated, leaving essentially twice the ionospheric delay, multipath and system noise. The ionospheric delay is largely removed by using high-resolution ionospheric delay maps produced by NOAA. The remaining residuals contain mainly low-frequency multipath, if it exists, and high-frequency system noise, which are decomposed using Daubechies family wavelets (db8). A satellite signal is identified as contaminated by multipath based on the standard deviation of the low-frequency part of the residual component. The L1 measurements obtained from the satellites with the lowest multipath are used to compute the final positions using two software packages, namely Trimble Total Control (TTC) and Bernese scientific processing software. The Magellan AC12 low-cost single-frequency GPS receiver was extensively tested in static mode. It is shown that accuracies within 5 cm are routinely obtained for baselines up to 65 km under various multipath environments.

Navigational safety analysis relying on collision statistics is often hampered because of the low number of observations. A promising alternative approach that overcomes this problem is proposed in this paper. By analyzing critical vessel interactions this approach proactively measures collision risk in port waters. The proposed method is illustrated for quantitative measurement of collision risks in Singapore port fairways, and validated by examining correlations between the measured risks with those perceived by pilots. This method is an ethically appealing alternative to the collision-based analysis for fast, reliable and effective safety assessment, thus possessing great potential for managing collision risks in port waters.

The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) is an autonomous and independent navigational system being developed by India. IRNSS will provide position, navigation and timing services for national applications. To improve accuracy, it can be augmented using GPS and pseudolites (pseudo-satellites). In this paper, the effect on DOP (Dilution of Precision) due to augmentation of the proposed constellation of IRNSS with pseudolites is investigated. GDOP is reduced to 1·75 (max) from 3·63 (max) due to augmentation of IRNSS with two airport pseudolites (APLs). Due to augmentation of IRNSS with GPS, GDOP is reduced to 2·4 (max). When IRNSS is augmented with an APL as well as with GPS, GDOP is further decreased to 1·65 (max). The regional effect on DOP due to IRNSS is also investigated at different locations in the Indian region.

In this paper, a novel ship domain model termed quaternion ship domain (QSD) is proposed. Unlike other ship domains, the proposed QSD is more dependable and more flexible for navigators to use to make decisions. The main characteristics are that: the domain size is determined by the quaternion including four radii, i.e. fore, aft, starboard and port, which sufficiently take factors affecting the domain (i.e. ship manoeuvring capability, speeds and courses, etc.) into account; and that the domain shape is modelled by another parameter which makes the QSD more flexible since the ship boundary could not only be linear or nonlinear, but also be thin or fat. In order to reasonably relate the proposed QSD to practical applications, i.e. collision risk assessment, collision avoidance and trajectory planning, etc., a fuzzy QSD (FQSD) has been developed by using fuzzy sets. As a result, fuzzy boundaries rather than crisp ones in the FQSD are more practical and more convenient for navigators to understand and judge since uncertainty and fuzzy information have been merged into the FQSD. Furthermore, concepts of longitudinal and lateral risk based on the FQSD have been introduced to estimate the spatial collision risk (SCR) for the ships encountered. Finally, several computer simulations have been conducted on various encounter situations and comparative studies with other ship domains have been comprehensively analyzed. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed QSD is more effective and more flexible than other ship domains, and that the intelligent SCR based on the FQSD are reasonable and dependable.

Position calculations, e.g. adding, subtracting, interpolating, and averaging positions, depend on the representation used, both with respect to simplicity of the written code and accuracy of the result. The latitude/longitude representation is widely used, but near the pole singularities, this representation has several complex properties, such as error in latitude leading to error in longitude. Longitude also has a discontinuity at ±180°. These properties may lead to large errors in many standard algorithms. Using an ellipsoidal Earth model also makes latitude/longitude calculations complex or approximate. Other common representations of horizontal position include UTM and local Cartesian ‘flat Earth’ approximations, but these usually only give approximate answers, and are complex to use over larger distances. The normal vector to the Earth ellipsoid (called n-vector) is a non-singular position representation that turns out to be very convenient for practical position calculations. This paper presents this representation, and compares it with other alternatives, showing that n-vector is simpler to use and gives exact answers for all global positions, and all distances, for both ellipsoidal and spherical Earth models. In addition, two functions based on n-vector are presented, that further simplify most practical position calculations, while ensuring full accuracy.