As part of studies on the nature of the endemic virus infections in natural rodent hosts, the possible association of cyst forms of Pneumocystis spp. with the presence of hanta-, cowpox-, and arenavirus antibodies in wild mice (Apodemus flavicollis, N=105; Apodemus agrarius, N=63; Micromys minutus, N=50) and the common shrew (Sorex araneus, N=101) was studied in south-central Finland. One hantavirus (Saaremaa virus, SAAV) seropositive A. agrarius, and 2 cowpoxvirus (CPXV) seropositive S. araneus were detected, and antibodies against an arenavirus (Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, LCMV) were found in all 3 mouse species but not in shrews. Cyst forms of Pneumocystis spp. were detected in all species except A. agrarius. There was no significant association between virus antibodies (LCMV in mice, and CPXV in shrews) and cyst forms of Pneumocystis in any of the species. Concurrent presence of virus antibodies (LCMV) and cyst forms of Pneumocystis were detected only in 1 M. minutus. In conclusion, we found no evidence of any association between Pneumocystis and antibodies to any of the viruses tested.

At the beginning of 1917 Professor V. Dogiel kindly handed over to me, for scientific treatment, a series of blood-films taken from different Amphibia, Reptilia, and Mammalia by the Expedition of Professors V. Dogiel and I. Sokolov to British East Africa in 1914. The films were examined by me for blood parasites, with the result that, of 27 animals, two different species of Bufo and two snakes proved to be infected. The blood parasites were represented by haemogregarines exclusively. The blood-films had been fixed on cover-slips by the dry method, and preserved in that condition for nearly three years. Altogether, I had at my disposal only 24 slips with blood-films taken from the peripheral blood of the infected animals.

It is pointed out that two of the three major groups of anthelmintic act by opening membrane ion-channels. It is appropriate, therefore, to use electrophysiological methods to study the properties of the sites of action of these drugs and the changes in the properties of these receptor sites associated with resistance. This paper describes the use of the patch- clamp technique to observe the currents that flow through the levamisole-activated channels as they open and close in levamisole-sensitive and levamisole-resistant isolates. It was found that, on average, the proportion of time the channels are open, is less in the resistant isolate. The patch-clamp technique also showed that the ion-channels are heterogeneous and that one of the subtypes is lost with the appearance of resistance. The use of the current clamp technique is illustrated to record a site of action of ivermectin in the pharyngeal muscle of Ascaris.

The structure and ultrastructure of the excretory system of Panagrellus redivivus, Ditylenchus myceliophagus, D. dipsaci and the second-stage larvae of the Heterodera rostochiensis are described. Panagrellus has two lateral ducts, a median duct and a gland. The two lateral ducts are joined over the anterior part of the oesophageal bulb to form a loop. Anteriorly this loop continues as a median duct, which opens to the exterior in an excretory pit, part of the system lies free in the pseudocoelom. The lumen of the lateral excretory duct and the greater part of the median duct is surrounded by capitate tubules, which open into the lumen of the excretory duct. Capitate tubules develop by the invagination of the hypodermal membranes and lie embedded in thick cytoplasm surrounded by mitochondria. Ensheathed in cell membranes the excretory duct forms an anastomosis in the loop and at three other places along the length of each lateral excretory duct. At these regions there are nerve endings. The excretory gland opens posteriorly into the loop and is full of Golgi complexes, endoplasmic reticulum and secretory granules.

In the system of Ditylenchus and the second-stage larva of Heterodera the right lateral duct is absent while the left lateral excretory duct continues anteriorly past the median excretory duct; a true loop is not formed. The median excretory duct lies embedded almost throughout its length in the excretory gland. Capitate tubules are present along the length of the lateral excretory duct, but, unlike Panagrellus, are not present around the median excretory duct. Anastomosis is not formed in the excretory ducts. In other respects the system of the species studied is similar to that of Panagrellus.

The capitate tubules form a system of fine microtubules. Their ultrastructure and, particularly, their association with large numbers of mitochondria, is very reminiscent of structures thought to be concerned with an active transport role, related to ionic and osmoregulation in other phyla.

The excretory system is almost certainly hypodermal in origin. Differences between the morphology and relations of the median duct of Enoplus (Narang, 1970), on the one hand, and that of the other forms studied suggest that these ducts may have different origins: the presence of separate nuclei in the lateral duct and gland portions of the system would be consistent with this view. It is considered that the two parts may have originated separately and have become joined during evolution. It is also shown that the excretory system of Ditylenchus cannot be derived either from an H-shaped system or from a primitive gland system.

I wish to thank Professor C. Ellenby and Mr L. Smith for their helpful criticism.

Glucose is utilized as a significant source of metabolic energy by Leishmania parasites. This sugar is accumulated by the parasite via a specific carrier-mediated transport system located in the parasite membrane. Parasites may also contain another transporter that shuttles glucose between the cytoplasm and the glycosome, a membrane-bound organelle where the early steps of glycolysis occur. The transport systems of both the insect stage promastigotes and the intracellular amastigotes have been characterized and shown to have kinetic properties that are consistent with the different physio-logical environments of the insect gut and the macrophage phagolysosome. Several genes have been cloned from Leishmania species which encode proteins with substantial sequence similarity to glucose transporters from mammals and lower eukaryotes. Two of these genes are expressed preferentially in the promastigote stage of the life cycle, where glucose is more readily available and more rapidly transported and metabolized than in the intracellular amastigotes. One of these two developmentally-regulated genes has been functionally expressed in Xenopus oocytes and shown to encode a glucose transporter. A third gene encodes a protein that is also a member of the glucose transporter family on the basis of sequence similarity and proposed secondary structure. However, the significant differences between this protein and the other two suggest that it is likely to transport a different substrate. Functional expression will be required to define the specific biochemical role of each gene within the parasite.

1. The staining and morphology of E. parvum were characteristic of the genus Eperythrozoon. The diameter of the organism was approximately 250 mμ.

2. Visible eperythrozoa disappeared in 20 min. from infected blood incubated at 56° C., and in 12 hr. at 37° C. They persisted for several days at room temperature.

3. E. parvum was preserved for short periods at 5° C. and for longer periods at −30 and −79° C.

4. Splenectomized early-weaned piglets were experimentally infected by the parenteral and oral routes, and by means of the pig louse Haematopinus suis.

5. The mean prepatent period of 103 primary infections in splenectomized pigs was 9·7 days. Patent infections sometimes persisted for at least 36 days. One pig remained a carrier of E. parvum for 23 months.

6. A severe anaemia occurred in splenectomized piglets affected with E. parvum, but intact piglets were apparently unaffected.

7. E. parvum was susceptible in vivo to neoarsphenamine and oxytetracycline, but not to sulphadimidine, penicillin or streptomycin.

The route of transmission and host finding behaviour are fundamental components of a parasite's fitness. Riccardoella limacum, a haematophagous mite, lives in the mantle cavity of helicid land snails. To date it has been assumed that this parasitic mite is transmitted during courtship and mating of the host. Here we present experimental evidence for a new transmission route in the host snail Arianta arbustorum. Parasite-free snails were kept on soil on which previously infected host snails had been maintained for 6 weeks. R. limacum was successfully transmitted via soil without physical contact among hosts in 10 out of 22 (45·5%) cases. In a series of experiments we also examined the off-host locomotion of R. limacum on snail mucus and control substrates using an automated camera system. Parasitic mites showed a preference to move on fresh mucus. Our results support the hypothesis that R. limacum uses mucus trails to locate new hosts. These findings should be considered in commercial snail farming and when examining the epidemiology of wild populations.

1. Coitocaecum anaspidis sp.nov. is a Trematode which exhibits precocious genital activity whilst encysted as a metacercaria in the Tasmanian Mountain Shrimp, Anaspides tasmaniae Thomson.

2. Eggs are laid by the Trematode whilst in the encysted condition, and in some cases the eggs hatch in the cyst giving rise to miracidia which swim freely in the contained fluids.

3. Two hundred specimens of Anaspides tasmaniae were examined and one hundred and twenty-seven found to contain the encysted Trematode.

4. A systematic description of the Trematode is given.

Thirty-five lambs (14 weeks old), the progeny of Border Leicester rams mated with Border Leicester × Merino ewes, were divided at random into two groups. Seventeen lambs in Group A received 3500 Haemonchus contortus larvae weekly and 18 lambs in Group B received 500 larvae each day: the dosage was decreased to 1400 larvae weekly and 200 larvae per day after 8 weeks.

Pathogenicity was found to be higher when the lambs were infected with a small number of larvae daily (daily group) than when the same number of larvae were given in one dose at weekly intervals (weekly group). The period of survival was consistently shorter in the former group.

No significant difference in faecal egg counts was observed between the two groups.

Reduction in food intake per head per day and in live weight were more pronounced in the ‘daily group’ than in group dosed weekly. The discrepancy in food consumption and live weight between these two treatments was more apparent at the end of the experiment.

Some resistance was observed in both groups but the level of resistance was not high.

Accumulation of inhibited larvae was apparent after 104 days in the ‘weekly group’ and after 78 days in the ‘daily group’. An infection arising from a large number of larvae given at weekly intervals induced a mild form of resistance leading to an accumulation of inhibited larvae at the end of the experiment. This was less apparent in lambs infected with the same number of larvae given each day.

Interference with ovulation in adult females was recorded in both treatments. Sex discrimination against the female population both in the extent of elimination of adults and in the retardation of development of fourth-stage larvae was recorded and the intensity of discrimination was more pronounced with the weekly regime of larger doses than with the same number of larvae but given in daily doses. The worms were eliminated sporadically and not continuously. A challenge infection of 10000 larvae given to two lambs in the ‘weekly’ regime treatment on the 107th day initiated a partial selfcure reaction demonstrated by an immediate fall in faecal eggs per gram (i.e. Epg) but the egg count returned to the original value in 28 days.

1. While investigating the parasites of the holly leaf-miner (Phytomyza ilicis Curt.) with a view to utilizing them in the control of this troublesome pest of holly in western Canada, a species of Opius, which on examination proved to be new to science, was reared from the fly puparia.

2. A fairly complete account of the general systematics, distribution, biology, and morphology of the various developmental stages of this parasite is set down in the preceding pages. The primary larva is particularly interesting because of its unusual orientation. After the anatomical details had been worked out it was discovered that the concave side of the larva, which would normally be regarded as the ventral surface, is actually the dorsal one.

3. The genus Opius, whose distribution is world-wide, contains a very large number of species which parasitize important economic pests. In temperate regions the insects which suffer most from their attacks are species of Pegomyia, Agromyza, Rhagoletis, Phytomyza and Cerodonta, whilst in tropical and subtropical areas the most favoured hosts belong to one or other of the two genera Dacus and Anastrepha.

4. The host relationship of the genus, because of its importance from both economic and taxonomic standpoints, is discussed at some length.

5. In the first stadium Opius ilicis is a larval parasite, but the three succeeding instars live in the host pupa, and the imago emerges from the puparium. A very interesting phase in the life history of this parasite occurs towards the end of the first stage. At this point the development of the larva is arrested and further growth cannot take place until the host has pupated.

6. Very little work has so far been carried out on the larval morphology of the Opiinae, but that done up to the present, including the foregoing descriptions, would seem to indicate that the larvae of this tribe form a fairly homogeneous group. The main distinguishing characters of these larvae are listed in section VII of this paper.

7. It is pointed out that O. ilicis, in spite of being intrinsically inferior to Chrysocharis gemma, is responsible for the destruction of a certain number of hosts which escape the attentions of the latter parasite, and although the percentage accounted for is small (maximum parasitism in 1939 4%), it nevertheless fills a particular niche of its own, and so must be of some definite value in the scheme of control.

8. The chief method employed by the first instar of Chrysocharis gemma in the destruction of rival Opius larvae would appear to be direct mandibular attack. Several reasons have been put forward to account for the decided inferiority which is exhibited by the Braconid when it comes into conflict with this Chalcid.

9. In section X, a number of interesting points which have a general bearing on the study of parasite larvae are discussed. These include the cephalic skeleton and its probable function in successive instars, the taxonomic value of this structure in the parasitic Hymenoptera, the apparent absence of a tracheal system in the second and third instar larvae of O. ilicis, and arrested development in the Opiinae and some related forms.

Weight and length profiles are presented of 3505 Ascaris worms recovered after mass anthelmintic treatment of a human community in January 1984 and, after an 11 month period of reinfection, in November 1984. Male and female worms recovered after reinfection were significantly heavier and longer than those expelled after initial treatment (P < 0·0001). Multiple regression models were employed to examine variability in parasite size. A positive influence of host body weight on the weight of parasites recovered in January, but not in November, was observed. No negative relationship was recorded at either date between worm size and the total number of worms harboured, even after controlling for host weight. Striking host age-related variability was observed in the distribution profile of weights and lengths of individual worms recovered in January. Children harboured predominantly smaller worms before initial treatment, while adults expelled mainly heavy worms. In contrast, worms expelled by both children and adults after reinfection were heavier and more homogeneous in size, particularly within the relatively heavily infected group. These patterns argue against a primary role for density- dependent or acquired resistance mechanisms in determining the size of Ascaris in humans. However, the results are consistent with a hypothesis initially suggested by Jung (1954) that established worms may inhibit the development of newly acquired Ascaris larvae, perhaps regulating their own abundance.

Intestinal diarrheagenic polyparasitic infections are among the major public health concerns in developing countries. Here we examined stool specimens by microscopy, DNA dot blot and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to evaluate the co-infection of four principal protozoans among amoebic dysentery cases from Northeast Indian population. The multiplex PCR confirmed Entamoeba histolytica (8·1%), Entamoeba dispar (4·8%) and mixed infection of both the parasites (3·4%) in 68 of 356 stool specimens that were positive in microscopy and/or HMe probe based DNA dot blot screening. The prevailing parasite that co-exists with E. histolytica was Giardia duodenalis (34·1%), followed by Enterocytozoon bieneusi (22·0%), Cryptosporidium parvum (14·6%) and Cyclospora cayetanensis (7·3%, P = 0·017). Symptomatic participants (odds ratio (OR) = 4·07; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1·06, 15·68; P = 0·041), monsoon season (OR = 7·47; 95% CI = 1·40, 39·84; P = 0·046) and participants with family history of parasitic infection (OR = 4·50; 95% CI = 1·16, 17·51; P = 0·030) have significant association with overall co-infection rate. According to molecular consensus, comprehensive microscopy yielded 3·4% (12/356) false-negative and 7·6% (27/356) false-positive outcome, suggesting an improved broad-spectrum PCR-based diagnostic is required to scale down the poor sensitivity and specificity as well as implementation of integrated control strategy.

Angiostrongylus cantonensis has been found in Florida, USA, from the panhandle in the north to Miami and surrounding areas in the southern parts of the state, in both definitive and intermediate hosts in a limited studies completed in 2015. Additional studies have identified this parasite in a variety of intermediate hosts, both native and non-native gastropod species, with new host species recorded. Many areas in Florida with higher A. cantonensis prevalence were those with a high human population density, which suggests it is a matter of time before human infections occur in Florida. Case reports in the state currently involve non-human primates and include a gibbon and orangutan in Miami. Here, we report the current status of A. cantonensis in the state, as well as the infection in a capuchin monkey and presumptive infection in a red ruffed lemur in Gainesville, Florida.

A Besnoitia species of the teiid lizard Ameiva ameiva (L.), from north Brazil was established in laboratory mice and hamster by the intraperitoneal inoculation of bradyzoites in the tissue cysts. In the lizards all the cyst wall layers were closely apposed. In the mice the layers of the wall were distinguishable, and ultrastructurally the inner cytoplasmic layer contained either a tight network of endoplasmic reticulum or packed mitochondria or both. These components were less frequent or sparse in the inner cytoplasmic layer of cysts in the lizard. The only animals available for experiments in attempts to indicate the definitive host of the parasite were 3 kittens of the domestic cat and a juvenile specimen of the snake Boa constrictor raised in captivity. No evidence of infection could be detected in these animals after feeding them with the tissues of mice harbouring cysts with very large number of bradyzoites.

Serological antibody detection by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)- and immunoblot-based methods constitutes the best indicator of human Toxocara infection. Nevertheless, the availability of serological tests, particularly western blots (WB), evaluated for sensitivity and specificity is limited. Therefore, an Anti-Toxocara-ELISA immunoglobulin g (IgG) prototype (Proto-ELISA) and an Anti-Toxocara-Westernblot (IgG) prototype (Proto-WB) were evaluated by testing 541 human sera pre-determined for Toxocara infection by an established in-house Anti-Toxocara-ELISA (IH-ELISA). To evaluate sensitivity and specificity of the newly developed ELISA and WB prototypes, results were compared to IH-ELISA and a commercial WB (Com-WB). Compared to the IH-ELISA, a sensitivity of 93.1% (229/246) and a specificity of 94.6% (279/295) of the Proto-ELISA with a Cohen's κ of 0.88 were obtained. The sensitivity of the Proto-WB was 76.7% (240/313) and specificity was 99.6% (227/228) with a Cohen's κ of 0.73 compared to those of Com-WB. A comparison to the IH-ELISA revealed 91.5% (225/246) sensitivity and 94.6% (279/295) specificity of the Proto-WB with a Cohen's κ of 0.86. Cross-reactivity was observed for some samples positive for Ascaris and Trichinella spp. in the Proto-ELISA, Proto-WB and Com-WB. Overall, the evaluated ELISA and WB prototypes showed high sensitivity and specificity, indicating high reliability of these newly developed tests.

The essential oil (EO) of Thymus capitatus, seven fractions (F1–F7) obtained from silica gel chromatography, and several pure EO components were evaluated with respect to in vitro activities against Echinococcus multilocularis metacestodes and germinal layer (GL) cells. Attempts to evaluate physical damage in metacestodes by phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI) assay failed because EO and F1–F7 interfered with the PGI-activity measurements. A metacestode viability assay based on Alamar Blue, as well as transmission electron microscopy, demonstrated that exposure to EO, F2 and F4 impaired metacestode viability. F2 and F4 exhibited higher toxicity against metacestodes than against mammalian cells, whereas EO was as toxic to mammalian cells as to the parasite. However, none of these fractions exhibited notable activity against isolated E. multilocularis GL cells. Analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry showed that carvacrol was the major component of the EO (82.4%), as well as of the fractions F3 (94.4%), F4 (98.1%) and F5 (90.7%). Other major components of EO were β-caryophyllene, limonene, thymol and eugenol. However, exposure of metacestodes to these components was ineffective. Thus, fractions F2 and F4 of T. capitatus EO contain potent anti-echinococcal compounds, but the activities of these two fractions are most likely based on synergistic effects between several major and minor constituents.