Radiocarbon measurements on a 109-year-old (1868-1977) core of Montastrea annularis coral from Glover Reef, Belize, in the Gulf of Honduras, reveal uptake of fossil fuel CO2 and bomb 14C by surface ocean waters. The history of Δ14C values revealed by this Belize growth agree remarkably well with results for coral growth from the Florida Straits. It is concluded that these corals are reliable recorders of 14C concentrations of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIOC) in surface waters representative of the Gulf Stream.

The University of Washington Model FN tandem Van de Graaff accelerator is being used for the measurement of extremely small isotopic abundance ratios, notably 14C/12C and 10Be/9Be, in a joint project of the Nuclear Physics Laboratory (NPL) and the Quaternary Isotope Laboratory (QL). The experimental arrangements and technical developments are described, and some preliminary results on isotopic ratios in carbon and beryllium are presented.

Measurements of 14CO in the lower troposphere show a well-defined seasonal variation between 11 ± 1 molecules cm–3 in summer and 25 ± 2 molecules cm–3 in winterat 51°N. The concentration at 27°N in summer is found to be 4.2 ± 0.7 molecules cm–3. From these data and published 12CO measurements, the average concentration of OH radicals in the troposphere is calculated to be 6.5 ± 2.5 × 105 molecules cm–3 using a 2-D time-dependent model. The corresponding 12CO lifetime is two months; the 14CO lifetime is five months.

The addition of organic materials derived from the upper soil layer yields, for samples at greater depth, younger 14C dates than the date of deposition. To find a criterion for the contamination with younger carbon in a soil sample, we examined the radiocarbon concentrations in two humic acid fractions and humin taken from the same sample. The humic acid extracted from a soil sample was divided into two fractions HA1 and HA2. HA1 is the first fraction extracted by 30 minutes' heating with 2 percent NaOH solution, and HA2 is the second fraction extracted by 2 hours' heating with 2 percent NaOH solution after the extraction of HA1. The residue was assumed as the humin (HM).

Many of the peat or soil samples taken from the layer just above the nonpermeable layer contain appreciable amounts of organic materials transported from the upper layer after the sedimentation of the deposits. For the limited number of cases tested here, there is a trend in which the contaminants are selectively extracted by HA1 or HA2. When the soil samples are contaminated the ages of the HA1 and HA2 fractions appeared to differ widely in most cases. Agreement between the HA1, HA2, and HM ages may be used as a criterion for the reliability of the soil dating.

Systematic dating of tufa samples has been undertaken to establish a chronology of tufa deposits in Plitvice National Park, Yugoslavia. We conclude that tufa samples give reproducible data within the time span of ≈ 40,000 years up to recent. The 14C/12C ratio of carbon in the ambient biosphere and hydrosphere gives a detailed picture of the distribution of carbon isotopes in the investigated system. Despite the susceptibility of calcareous material to ambient conditions in the hydrosphere, the original 14C composition of tufa has not been substantially changed. A vertical profile which was cut in tufa during pathway construction showed that the tufa isochrones run vertically in the investigated area. The vertical isochrones and the 14C gradient were horizontal due to tufa build-up in Plitvice National Park which occurs on vertical escarpments that have been flooded. The relatively uniform radiocarbon content of most tufa deposits indicates redistribution of radiocarbon during the formation period. While detailed stratigraphy is often obscured, a general chronology of tufa deposits in the investigated area has been established.

14C measurements on continuous weekly samples of atmospheric CO2 and hydrocarbons, collected in a rather densely populated area are presented. The deviation of the measured 14C data from the clean air level is primarily due to CO2 from the combustion of fossil fuels. This is confirmed by fossil fuel admixture estimates individually calculated with an atmospheric dispersion model. Up to 10 percent admixture is predicted by this model and observed from the 14C shift for weekly averages, particularly during the winter season. Natural CO2 admixture due to soil respiration, however, even in winter, is of the same order of magnitude, but much larger in the warm season: the considerable variations in CO2 concentration in summer are almost exclusively controlled by natural sources. Using tree leaf samples, we have been able to identify boiling water reactors (BWR) as weak sources of 14CO2. Atmospheric samples taken in the environment of the pressurized water reactors (PWR) Biblis show that the 14C release of these reactors is primarily in the form of hydrocarbon 14C. The source strength of the various power plants, calculated on the basis of our observations in their environment, ranges from 0.5 to 7Ci per year.

The normalization of a measured δ14C value of atmospheric CO2 to a δ13C value of − 25‰ does not take into account the presence of fossil fuel and biogenic CO2. In this paper, we try to assess these contaminations as well as the proper 14C content of “clean air”.

Cosmic-ray produced atmospheric 39Ar activity (T1/2 = 269 yr) has been determined at 0.11 ±0.012 dpm/lt argon. Ice samples from two profiles in Greenland bore holes showed conclusively that 39Ar dating leads to correct ages. Corrections can be made for possible contamination of the samples with ambient air during field extraction and during laboratory processing by measuring 85Kr in the same samples.

The following isotopes: 14C, 39Ar, 85Kr, 3H, partly 32Si, 13C, and 18O were investigated in 20 groundwater samples. Unexpectedly large discrepancies between “14C ages” and “39Ar ages” were observed for many of these samples. For example, a horizontal profile of a confined sandstone aquifer in the Franconian Albvorland showed decreasing 39Ar and 14C activities from respectively, 100 percent to 17 percent and 80 percent to 0.3 percent of modern activity, corresponding to elapsed time periods of 700 and >20,000 years, respectively.

It seems unlikely that gas exchange through the aquiclude is the cause of this discrepancy. It can neither be explained by only assuming that the water represents a mixing of components with different ages. We detected the possibility of underground production of 39Ar in thermal spring water from Zurzach, Switzerland. Its argon showed higher specific activity than atmospheric argon. Elsewhere, however, samples were found containing no detectable 39Ar activity: two wells of a confined carstic aquifer in Ingolstadt, Germany, show less than 7 percent atmospheric activity.

In our opinion, the assumptions on which the 14C method in hydrology are based need to be critically re-examined. It is possible that for some aquifers carbonate exchange between solid and liquid phases in the aquifer changes 14C results to a larger degree than generally assumed.

Atmospheric 14C variations in nature, as previously documented for the Southern Hemisphere by studies carried out in South Africa and New Zealand, were supplemented by 14C concentration measurements of wheat-grain samples collected in southeastern New South Wales. Our measurements cover the critical period of 1945/46 up to 1956/57, and span the transition of Suess and atom-bomb effects. The observed variations can be followed quite precisely in the peat deposits of the Bega Swamp, New South Wales, and indicate that vertical mixing of organic components within the peat is negligible. Pollen analytical data covering the last 400 years also show that the peats act as efficient traps; thus, time-precise zonations can be identified, and historically documented man-induced changes in pollen assemblages can be correlated with 14C ages in recent times.

Frequency distributions of more than 300 14C groundwater ages from various regions in northern and southern Sahara reflect the alternating sequence of humid and arid periods in the Sahara during the Holocene and late Pleistocene. A broad frequency maximum between 20,000 and 50,000 years bp indicates a long humid period. During this time span, the northern Sahara received rain from the Western Drift, which is concluded from a west-east decrease of deuterium and oxygen 18 of these groundwaters (continental effect). In the time-slice between 14,000 and 20,000 years bp, groundwater formation was significantly lower due to a cool and (semi-)arid period. In the Holocene, the Saharian climate is characterized by a sequence of dry and wet periods.

Annual atmospheric radiocarbon concentrations for the year 1957 to 1978 are measured through oat seeds grown in the rural region of La Pocatière, Québec (70° W, 47° N). Results follow the general pattern of other curves obtained from grains elsewhere in the northern hemisphere. Some disagreements suggest a non-uniform mixing process with faster response to stratospheric contamination in definite regions.

Radiocarbon dates, obtained from paleosols, sediments, fossils, and groundwater samples of North Africa and especially, Tunisia, were investigated for information on phases of pedogenesis throughout the younger Pleistocene and Holocene in north and central Tunisia. This paper evaluates available data, while a larger set of new samples is under study, which, hopefully will exhaust the problem and will reveal whether extrapolations such as those made in this paper, eg, phases of pedogenesis from groundwater data, are correct.

Frequency distribution of the dates from groundwaters taken by systematic sampling, as well as from random soil samples from open pits that yielded access to buried paleosols, indicate that organic matter was being produced for 7 or 8 periods. The evidence suggests major pedogenic activity at about 2000 BP, 4000 to 6000 BP, 8000 to 12,000 BP, and perhaps 21,000 to 25,000 BP.

Efforts have been undertaken to further improve the relatively simple technique of low-level liquid scintillation counting of 14C. Two different approaches have been made. By synthesizing more benzene for 14C measurement than usual (with up to 19.5g of carbon) an experimental detection limit of about 0.1 percent modern has been achieved (97.5% confidence level, 1000 min). Absorption of CO2 with up to 5.3g of carbon in 160ml of an absorbent-scintillation solution and counting in a special measuring chamber resulted in an experimental detection limit of about 1 percent modern, with the sample preparation taking only 1 hour. The detection limits achieved by the two techniques correspond to 14C ages of about 55,000 and 35,000 years BP, respectively.

14C and 13C enrichment values are reported for a series of surface soil profiles which represent the progressive transition from mor to mull humus induced by birch (Betula pendula) colonization.

Variations in Δ and δ13C, which range between 85 to 154‰ modern and −28.1 to −25.3‰ (PDB), respectively, reflect changes in the rate and mode of organic decomposition. The most marked alterations in soil character occur over the first few decades following the introduction of birch, with clear isotopic evidence for the deeper penetration and accelerated mineralization of organic material.

Δ14C and δ13C values for organic matter in forest and grassland soils, in the presence or absence of earthworms, indicate that it should be possible to quantify the effects of earthworms on soil organic matter by this means. Without earthworms, both in forest and grassland soils, plant debris tends to accumulate on the surface of the mineral soil and little organic matter is incorporated into or is translocated down the soil profile. Where earthworms are present, there is much more marked incorporation of fresh plant debris in the mineral soil. This is shown especially by the pulse of ‘bomb’ carbon and also by the δ13C values.

In this paper it is shown that the ability to directly detect a daughter atom, using resonance ionization spectroscopy, in delayed time coincidence with the decay of a parent species promises to drastically reduce the background in low-level counting experiments. In addition, resonance ionization can also be used as an ion source for a mass spectrometer system that is capable of discriminating between isobars.

The possibilities of widening the ranges of usage of scintillation counters are studied. As a result of the introduction of the active guard, the background in 14C channel reduces 30 to 75 percent and the stability of background increases. The application of quartz vials and a plastic scintillator as an active guard establishes 14C activity in small amounts of scintillation cocktail (up to 0.1g C) and dates samples with older ages (up to 57,000 years). The parameters of devices are given in case of different amounts of scintillation cocktail.

Tufa is a superficial, secondary deposit of calcium carbonate which accumulates on precipitation from emergent spring waters. It occurs as discrete, localized masses in regions of calcareous country rock.

In the United Kingdom, deposits vary widely in structure and thickness but little is known of the rate of deposition. Some deposits contain laminae assumed to represent annual growth increments and which should contain a 14C and stable isotope record related to the original water from which it was precipitated.

Investigations are reported on tufa from, three areas of different limestones in the United Kingdom (Northwest Yorkshire, South Derbyshire and North Oxfordshire).

Hydrologically, the dating of tufa by 14C involves the same problems as the dating of groundwater. In the case of actively forming tufa, however, it is possible to derive a sequence of measurements, beginning with present day deposition, which clearly demonstrates the applications of age corrections.

At Gordale Scar, Northwest Yorkshire, a profiling study of laminated tufa appears to show bomb trial 14C to a depth of 18mm below the surface, with almost constant values around 50 percent modern (raw data) from 18 to 48mm below the surface. The 14C content of surface tufa lies within the seasonal range of 14C measurements from the parent stream waters.

Results of 50 percent modern in the sequence are consistent with the simplest correction procedures based on δ13C balance and the observed δ13C change on tufa precipitation is a practical demonstration of the fractionation factor ∊13. However, the application of corrections to active, surface tufa and parent waters collected monthly over a period of study (14 months) from all three sites, produce results higher than would be expected from published world 14C levels.

A new 14C detector system containing nine, independently working, CO2 proportional counters is described. The system is designed for a sufficient measuring capacity at a precision level better than σ = ± 2‰, which requires a counting time of about one week per sample. The size of the installation requires a simple and economic design of counters and electronics. A single anticoincidence shield for all counters consists of five newly developed flat counters. The modern counting rate (52cpm) is sensitively checked by running Heidelberg sodium carbonate standard samples wth a counting rate of about 10 times modern. A microcomputer (DEC PDP-11 /03) is used for data acquisition. Recent developments in laboratory techniques (preparation and gaschromatographic purification of samples) are also reported.

Carbon isotope measurements in soil CO2 are presented and discussed. Soil CO2 concentration and 13C profiles were measured using a new technique. A simple model describing the CO2 transport from the soil to the atmosphere is derived. The finding that CO2 in the soil is richer in 13C than the CO2 leaving the soil is attributed to isotopic fractionation in molecular diffusion.