Farming elements other than the crop, when integrated into the system, are supplementary, with multifold uses that include weed and pest management. Elements such as fish and poultry birds are integrated with transplanted wetland rice (Oryza sativa L.) for ensuring farmers’ livelihoods and the nutritional security and sustainability of the system. Integrated animal components such as poultry birds and fish also supplement the system with weed control. The role and efficacy of these animal components as tools for managing weedy rice (Oryza sativa L.) were explored, as weedy rice infestation is increasing. This threat of weedy rice is due to scarcity of water resulting from poor water management and improper field leveling. Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella val.) produced the highest reduction of weedy rice biomass, 28% within 24 h under laboratory conditions. Polyculture of C. idella, mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala Ham.), and silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix val.) reduced the biomass of weedy rice by 21% within 24 h. In laboratory studies, poultry manure at the highest concentration of 5% reduced the weedy rice seed germination 100% compared with rice seed germination at 91%. This conformed with microplot experiments in which poultry manure at 15.6 g d−1 resulted in a weed control index (WCI) of 8% in both years. However, poultry manure at 15.6 g d−1 in combination with herbicide application resulted in the highest control indices of weedy rice: 52% in 2017 and 2018. Integrating fish and poultry with PRE application of oxyfluorfen (0.25 kg ha−1) resulted in the highest WCI and grain yield in field experiments.

Black nightshade (Solanum nigrum L.) is one of the worst weeds in crop fields, and it spreads mainly by the dispersal of seeds. Temperature is one of the key environmental factors affecting seed germination. We investigated the seed germination response to temperature in six populations of S. nigrum from mid- to northern China and derived mathematical models from germination data. The results showed that S. nigrum seeds exhibit distinct germination responses to temperature within the range of 15 to 35 C. The optimum temperature for populations XJ1600, JL1697, and HLJ2134 was 30 C, and those for populations NMG1704, HN2160, and LN2209 were 25, 20, and 15 C, respectively. Based on the nonlinear fitting and thermal time models, the predicted base temperatures of the six populations ranged from 2.3 to 6.4 C, and the required accumulated growing degree days (GDD) ranged from 50.3 to 106.0 C·d. The base temperatures and the accumulated GDD for germination differed among populations, and there was a significant negative correlation. HLJ2134 population required a high base temperature and accumulated GDD for germination, indicating that it might be highly adapted to a warmer and moister environment. Based on the different germination responses of S. nigrum populations to temperature, the thermal time model reflects an innate relationship between base temperature and accumulated GDD required for initiation of seed germination, which provides a better basis for predicting seedling emergence and the timing for optimal control of S. nigrum under field conditions.

A study was conducted to identify whether composted manure and straw amendments (replacement of a portion of chemical fertilizer [50% of the total nitrogen application] with composted pig manure, and straw return [all straw from the previous rice crop] combined with chemical fertilizer) compared with no fertilization and chemical fertilizer only would change the dominant species of wheat-associated weeds as well as influence their growth and seed yield in a rice (Oryza sativa L.)–wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) rotation system. The study was initiated in 2010, and the treatment effects on the species, density, plant height, shoot biomass, seed yield of dominant weeds, and wheat yields were assessed in 2017 and 2018. Fertilization significantly increased the height, density, and yield of wheat, as well as the shoot biomass of wheat-associated weeds, but decreased the weed species number. A total of 17 and 14 weed species were recorded in the experimental wheat fields in 2017 and 2018, respectively. The most dominant weed species were American sloughgrass [Beckmannia syzigachne (Steud.) Fernald] and catchweed bedstraw (Galium aparine L.), which made up more than 64% of the weed community in all treatments. When the chemical fertilizer application was amended with pig manure compost and straw return, the relative abundance of B. syzigachne significantly decreased, while the relative abundance of G. aparine significantly increased. The application of the chemical fertilizer-only treatment resulted in increases in the density, shoot biomass, and seed yield of B. syzigachne, while the composted manure and straw amendments applied together with chemical fertilizer led to significant increases in the density, shoot biomass, and seed yield of G. aparine. Consequently, further research on ways to promote greater cropping system diversity will be needed to prevent the selection of weed species that are adapted to a limited suite of crop management practices.

Field studies were conducted in 2019 and 2020 to compare the effects of shade cloth light interception and Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson) competition on ‘Covington’ sweetpotato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.]. Treatments consisted of a seven by two factorial arrangement, in which the first factor included shade cloth with an average measured light interception of 41%, 59%, 76%, and 94% and A. palmeri thinned to 0.6 or 3.1 plants m−2 or a nontreated weed-free check; and the second factor included shade cloth or A. palmeri removal timing at 6 or 10 wk after planting (WAP). Amaranthus palmeri light interception peaked around 710 to 840 growing degree days (base 10 C) (6 to 7 WAP) with a maximum light interception of 67% and 84% for the 0.6 and 3.1 plants m−2 densities, respectively. Increasing shade cloth light interception by 1% linearly increased yield loss by 1% for No. 1, jumbo, and total yield. Yield loss increased by 36%, 23%, and 35% as shade cloth removal was delayed from 6 to 10 WAP for No. 1, jumbo, and total yield, respectively. F-tests comparing reduced versus full models of yield loss provided no evidence that the presence of yield loss from A. palmeri light interception caused yield loss different than that explained by the shade cloth at similar light-interception levels. Results indicate that shade cloth structures could be used to simulate Covington sweetpotato yield loss from A. palmeri competition, and light interception could be used as a predictor for expected yield loss from A. palmeri competition.

Potential effectiveness of harvest weed seed control (HWSC) systems depends upon seed shatter of the target weed species at crop maturity, enabling its collection and processing at crop harvest. However, seed retention likely is influenced by agroecological and environmental factors. In 2016 and 2017, we assessed seed-shatter phenology in 13 economically important broadleaf weed species in soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] from crop physiological maturity to 4 wk after physiological maturity at multiple sites spread across 14 states in the southern, northern, and mid-Atlantic United States. Greater proportions of seeds were retained by weeds in southern latitudes and shatter rate increased at northern latitudes. Amaranthus spp. seed shatter was low (0% to 2%), whereas shatter varied widely in common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.) (2% to 90%) over the weeks following soybean physiological maturity. Overall, the broadleaf species studied shattered less than 10% of their seeds by soybean harvest. Our results suggest that some of the broadleaf species with greater seed retention rates in the weeks following soybean physiological maturity may be good candidates for HWSC.

Crop–weed interactions are affected by environmental alterations resulting from a crop’s presence, such as modifications in temperature, light quality and quantity, and moisture conditions that could modify weed performance. The objectives of this work were to study (1) how soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] crop structure modifies the environment under the canopy and large crabgrass [Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop.] plant structure, biomass, and seed production and dormancy; and (2) the relative importance of these environmental changes on the weed’s characteristics. A field experiment in a completely randomized block design with five replicates was performed to evaluate narrow and wide interrow spacing and soybean maturity groups 3 and 4. Measured variables were intercepted solar radiation (RAD); red–far red (R-FR) ratio; humidity; minimum, maximum, and alternating temperatures; and weed biomass, tillers per plant, height, and seed dormancy. Crop canopy reduced solar radiation, R-FR ratio, and daily average maximum and alternating temperatures. Soybean presence reduced the weed biomass, tillers and seeds per plant, and seed dormancy. High solar radiation intercepted by the crop during the reproductive phase was the main environmental variable related to reductions in weed biomass, tillers per plant, and fecundity. The combination of low temperature and solar radiation received by developing seeds was more related to seed dormancy than the rest of the variables. Crop management decisions focused on the fact that keeping the crop canopy alive for a longer time at the end of the season would not only reduce the weed growth but also seed dormancy.

The current study aimed to screen glyphosate-alternative weed control methods in three perennial crops in Greece. Field trials were conducted and repeated (2018 to 2019 and 2019 to 2020) in a citrus orchard (Citrus clementina Hort. ex Tan), an olive grove (Olea europaea L.), and a vineyard (Vitis vinifera L.) under the randomized complete block design (nine treatments, four blocks). Glyphosate was applied in the citrus orchard (720 g ae ha−1), the olive grove (720 g ae ha−1), and the vineyard (1,800 g ae ha−1). Pelargonic acid (1,088 g ha−1; two times), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) residues and white mustard (Sinapis alba L.) residues were evaluated in all sites. Mowing was evaluated in the citrus orchard (one time) and the vineyard (two times). Flazasulfuron (50 g ha−1), oxyfluorfen (144 g ha−1), and flumioxazin (150 g ha−1) were applied in the citrus orchard and the olive grove. Penoxsulam + florasulam (15 + 7.5 g ha−1) was also applied in the olive grove. Cycloxydim (200 g ha−1), quizalofop-p-ethyl (150 g ha−1) and propaquizafop (150 g ha−1) were applied in the vineyard. An untreated control was included in all sites. Flazasulfuron, oxyfluorfen, and flumioxazin resulted in similar normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and weed biomass to glyphosate in the citrus orchard in both years and evaluations. Pelargonic acid (two times) and mowing (one time) were effective on broadleaf weeds. Flazasulfuron and penoxsulam + florasulam were the most promising glyphosate-alternative weed control methods against hairy fleabane [Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist] in the olive grove. Cover crop residues showed their suppressive ability as in the citrus orchard. All selective herbicides resulted in similar NDVI and johnsongrass [Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.] dry weight values in the vineyard in both years. Negative and strong correlations were observed in all sites and years between crop yield and weed dry weight (R2 = 0.543 to 0.924).

Prevalence of wild oat (Avena fatua L.) and sterile oat [Avena sterilis ssp. ludoviciana (Durieu) Gillet & Magne; referred to as A. sterilis hereafter], winter-season weeds, is increasing in the eastern grain region of Australia. Biological attributes of these weeds enable them to survive in a wide range of environments and under different weed infestation levels. The interference of A. fatua and A. sterilis in a wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) crop was examined in southeast Queensland, Australia, through field studies in 2019 and 2020. Different infestation levels (0, 3, 6, 12, 24, and 48 plants m−2) of A. fatua and A. sterilis were evaluated for their potential to cause yield losses in wheat. Based on a three-parameter logarithmic model, the A. fatua and A. sterilis infestation levels corresponding to 50% wheat yield loss were 15 and 16 plants m−2, respectively. The yield reduction was due to a reduced spike number per unit area because of an increased weed infestation level. At the highest weed infestation level (48 plants m−2), A. fatua and A. sterilis produced a maximum of 4,800 and 3,970 seeds m−2, respectively. Avena fatua exhibited lower seed retention (17% to 39%) than A. sterilis (64% to 80%) at wheat harvest, as most of the seeds of A. fatua had shattered at crop maturity. Our results implied that there is a good opportunity for harvest weed seed control if the paddock is infested with A. sterilis. This study suggests that in the absence of an integrated weed management strategy (using both chemical and nonchemical options), a high infestation of these weeds could cause a severe crop yield loss, increase weed seed production, and replenish the weed seedbank in the soil.

Seed shatter is an important weediness trait on which the efficacy of harvest weed seed control (HWSC) depends. The level of seed shatter in a species is likely influenced by agroecological and environmental factors. In 2016 and 2017, we assessed seed shatter of eight economically important grass weed species in soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] from crop physiological maturity to 4 wk after maturity at multiple sites spread across 11 states in the southern, northern, and mid-Atlantic United States. From soybean maturity to 4 wk after maturity, cumulative percent seed shatter was lowest in the southern U.S. regions and increased moving north through the states. At soybean maturity, the percent of seed shatter ranged from 1% to 70%. That range had shifted to 5% to 100% (mean: 42%) by 25 d after soybean maturity. There were considerable differences in seed-shatter onset and rate of progression between sites and years in some species that could impact their susceptibility to HWSC. Our results suggest that many summer annual grass species are likely not ideal candidates for HWSC, although HWSC could substantially reduce their seed output during certain years.

The use of a corn–earthworm coculture (CE) system is an eco-agricultural technology that has been gradually extended due to its high economic output and diverse ecological benefits for urban agriculture in China. However, the effect of CE on weed occurrence has received little attention. A 5-yr successive experiment (2015 to 2019) was conducted to compare weed occurrence in CE and a corn (Zea mays L.) monoculture (CM). The results show that CE significantly decreased weed diversity, the dominance index, total weed density, and biomass, but increased the weed evenness index. The 5-yr mean number of weed species per plot was 8.4 in CE and 10.7 in CM. Compared with those in CM, the 5-yr mean density and biomass of total weeds in CE decreased by 59.2% and 66.6%, respectively. The effect of CE on weed occurrence was species specific. The mean density of large crabgrass [Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop.], green foxtail [Setaria viridis (L.) P. Beauv.], goosegrass [Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.], and common purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.) in CE decreased by 94.5%, 78.1%, 75.0%, and 45.8%, whereas the mean biomass decreased by 96.2%, 80.8%, 76.9%, and 41.4%, respectively. Our study suggests that the use of CE could suppress weed occurrence and reduce herbicide inputs in agriculture.

Ryegrass (Lolium spp.) is a troublesome weed in major wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) production regions in the United States. High diversity and adaptive potential are known to contribute to its success as a weed species and also create difficulties in correct species identification in fields. The objective of this research was to characterize diversity for 16 different morphological traits among 56 Lolium populations collected from wheat production fields across the Texas Blackland Prairies region and identify Lolium species based on taxonomic characteristics. Populations were highly diverse (both at inter- and intrapopulation levels) for the traits studied, and a taxonomic comparison with USDA-GRIN reference samples revealed that all the populations were variants of Italian ryegrass [Lolium perenne L. ssp. multiflorum (Lam.) Husnot] with a few offtypes of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) or probable hybrids between the two species. Hierarchical clustering grouped the populations into six clusters based on their similarities for the morphological traits investigated. Principal component analysis showed that the variability for yield traits greatly contributed to the total diversity. Pre-flowering plant height (stage 10 on Feekes scale) was positively correlated with tiller count, shoot biomass, and spike count, but not with total seed count per plant, whereas plant height at maturity (stage 11.3 to 11.4 on Feekes scale) was highly correlated with total seeds per plant. Further, basal node color was positively correlated with plant growth habit, regrowth rate, and leaf color. Leaf blade width was positively correlated with survival to pinoxaden and multiple herbicides, whereas, spike count was negatively correlated with survival to mesosulfuron. The high levels of intra- as well as interpopulation variability documented in this study indicate the potential of this species to rapidly adapt to herbicides and emphasize the need for implementing diverse management tactics, including the integration of harvest weed seed control.

The introduced meadow knapweed (Centaurea × moncktonii C.E. Britton), a hybrid of black (Centaurea nigra L.) and brown (Centaurea jacea L.) knapweeds, is increasingly common in pastures, meadows, and waste areas across many U.S. states, including New York. We evaluated the effects of temperature, light, seed stratification, scarification, and population on percent germination in four experiments over 2 yr. Percent germination ranged from 3% to 100% across treatment combinations. Higher temperatures (30:20, 25:15, and sometimes 20:10 C day:night regimes compared with 15:5 C) promoted germination, especially when combined with the stimulatory effect of light (14:10 h L:D compared with continuous darkness). Under the three lowest temperature treatments, light increased percent germination by 15% to 86%. Cold-wet seed stratification also increased germination rates, especially at lower germination temperatures, but was not a prerequisite for germination. Scarification did not increase percent germination. Differences between C. × moncktonii populations were generally less significant than differences between temperature, light, and stratification treatments. Taken together, these results indicate that C. × moncktonii is capable of germinating under a broad range of environments, which may have facilitated this species’ range expansion in recent decades. However, C. × moncktonii also shows evidence of germination polymorphism: some seeds will germinate under suboptimal conditions, while others may remain dormant until the abiotic environment improves. Subtle differences in dormancy mechanisms and their relative frequencies may affect phenological traits like the timing of seedling emergence and ultimately shape the sizes and ranges of C. × moncktonii populations.

The complementary activity of 4-hydroxphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD) inhibitors and atrazine is well documented, but the use of atrazine is restricted in some geographic areas, including the province of Quebec in Canada, necessitating the evaluation of atrazine alternatives and their interactions with HPPD inhibitors. The objectives of this study were to determine whether mixing HPPD inhibitors with atrazine alternative photosystem II (PS II) inhibitors, such as metribuzin and linuron applied PRE or bromoxynil and bentazon applied POST, results in similar control of multiple herbicide–resistant (MHR) waterhemp [Amaranthus tuberculatus (Moq.) Sauer] in corn (Zea mays L.). Ten field trials, five with herbicides applied PRE and five with herbicides applied POST, were conducted in Ontario, Canada, in fields infested with MHR A. tuberculatus. Isoxaflutole, applied PRE, controlled MHR A. tuberculatus 58% to 76%; control increased 17% to 34% with the addition of atrazine, metribuzin, or linuron at three of five sites across 2, 4, 8, and 12 wk after application (WAA). The interaction between isoxaflutole and PS II inhibitors, applied PRE, was additive for MHR A. tuberculatus control and biomass and density reduction. Mesotrione, tolpyralate, and topramezone, applied POST, controlled MHR A. tuberculatus 54% to 59%, 61%, and 44% to 45%, respectively, at two of five sites across 4, 8, and 12 WAA. The addition of atrazine, bromoxynil, or bentazon to mesotrione improved MHR A. tuberculatus control 29%, 34%, and 22%; to tolpyralate, improved control 2%, 20%, and 10%; and to topramezone, improved control 3%, 14%, and 8%, respectively. Interactions between HPPD and PS II inhibitors were mostly additive; however, synergistic responses were observed with mesotrione + bromoxynil or bentazon, and tolpyralate + bromoxynil. Mixing atrazine alternatives metribuzin or linuron with isoxaflutole, applied PRE, and bromoxynil or bentazon with mesotrione or tolpyralate, applied POST, resulted in similar or better control of MHR A. tuberculatus in corn.

On-site surveys of weed populations provide information on the relative occurrence and density of weeds that can be useful to growers in that region. Data generated by weed surveys can aid in the management of weed issues by monitoring the movement of problem weeds and forecasting areas susceptible to infestations. Currently, on-site surveys are often performed on a small scale, within single fields or counties. Questionnaire surveys are helpful for assessing relative abundance but do not always provide detailed information on weed distribution in time or space. A survey was conducted annually in Ohio from 2013 through 2017 in 49 counties with soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] production to assess the late-season occurrence of horseweed [Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist]. The objectives of this research were to: (1) determine the frequency, level of infestation, and distribution of C. canadensis in soybean fields in the primary soybean-producing Ohio counties over 5 yr; and (2) identify significant spatial clusters or movement trends over time. Conyza canadensis was encountered in each county from 2013 through 2017. Spatial cores of interest, or counties identified as having significant levels of C. canadensis infestations or a lack thereof relative to surrounding counties, were identified in all years except 2017. The lowest frequency of C. canadensis encountered at all rating levels occurred in 2017, which coincided with second-highest frequency of infestations (highest density level) among years. There was no distinct distribution or pattern of C. canadensis movement within the state from year to year, but there was an increase in counties with infestations over time compared with the early years of the survey when many counties had few to no infestations. These results suggest that C. canadensis persists as a common and troublesome threat to Ohio soybean producers and that growers should continue making C. canadensis management a priority when developing weed control programs.

Harvest weed seed control (HWSC) may control problematic weeds by decreasing contributions to the weed seedbank. However, HWSC practices will not be effective if plants have shed a great part of their seeds before harvest or if a low proportion of seed production is retained at a height that enables collection during harvest. The seed-shattering pattern of several weed species was evaluated over three growing seasons to determine their potential to be controlled with HWSC in the Pacific Northwest (PNW). The studied weed species were downy brome (Bromus tectorum L.), feral rye (Secale cereale L.), Italian ryegrass [Lolium perenne L. ssp. multiflorum (Lam.) Husnot], and rattail fescue [Vulpia myuros (L.) C.C. Gmel.]. Seed retention at harvest, seed production, and plant height differed among species, locations, and years. Environmental conditions influenced seed-shattering patterns, particularly the time plants started to shatter seeds and the rate of the shattering. Agronomic factors such as herbicide use, interrow space, or crop height/vigor also seemed to affect shattering patterns and seed production, but more specific studies must be conducted to determine their individual effects. Bromus tectorum, L. perenne ssp. multiflorum, and V. myuros had an average seed retention at harvest of less than 50%. In addition, the low seed retention height of V. myuros makes this species a poor candidate for HWSC. Secale cereale had average seed retention at harvest greater than 50%, and seed retention height was greater than 30 cm. The variability of seed retention in different species will make the efficacy of HWSC practices species and environment dependent in PNW winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cropping systems. Harvesting the wheat crop as early as possible will be crucial to the success of HWSC.

The spring-tine harrow is gaining popularity for mechanical weeding. However, its weeding performance and mechanism have not been well understood. A spring-tine harrow was first tested in a controlled indoor soil bin at four different travel speeds (4, 6, 8, and 10 km h−1) with three different spring-loading settings (low, medium, and high). Then the harrow was tested in a wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) field at the same spring-loading settings at three different weeding timings (early, middle, and late) in 2019 and 2020. Soil cutting forces (draft and vertical), soil displacements (forward and lateral), soil working depth, weed control efficacy, weed density, and crop damage were measured. The results showed that the spring-loading setting had a more dominant effect on working depth and soil cutting forces than the speed. The soil displacements were more dependent on the speed compared with the spring-loading setting. Treatment effects on weeding performance indicators in the field were similar across years. Adjusting the spring-loading setting from low to high improved the weeding efficacy from 44.9% to 73.9% in 2019 and from 51.6% to 78.1% in 2020. Consequently, the final weed density was minimized at the high loading setting, with the reduction in 2020 being significant. The middle weeding timing caused the least crop damage, while reducing the final weed density by approximately one-third compared with the control (without mechanical weeding), which was the most desired outcome among the three timings tested.