Crop residue can intercept and adsorb residual herbicides, leading to reduced efficacy. However, adsorption can sometimes be reversed by rainfall or irrigation. Greenhouse experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of differential overhead irrigation level on barnyardgrass response to acetochlor, pyroxasulfone, and pendimethalin applied to bare soil or wheat straw–covered soil. Acetochlor applied to wheat straw–covered soil resulted in 25% to 40% reduced control, 30 to 50 more plants 213 cm−2, and greater biomass than bare soil applications, regardless of irrigation amount. Barnyardgrass suppression by pyroxasulfone applications to wheat straw–covered soil improved with increased irrigation; however, weed control levels similar to bare soil applications were not observed after any irrigation amount. Barnyardgrass densities from pyroxasulfone applications to bare soil decreased with irrigation but did not change in applications to wheat straw–covered soil. Aboveground barnyardgrass biomass from pyroxasulfone decreased with greater irrigation amounts in both bare soil and wheat straw–covered soil applications; however, decreased efficacy in wheat straw–covered soil applications was not alleviated with irrigation. Pendimethalin was the only herbicide tested that displayed reduced efficacy when irrigation amounts increased in applications to both bare soil and wheat straw–covered soil. Barnyardgrass control from pendimethalin applied to wheat straw–covered soil was similar to bare soil applications when approximately 0.3 to 1.2 cm of irrigation was applied; however, irrigation amounts greater than 1.2 cm resulted in greater barnyardgrass control in bare soil applications. No differences between wheat straw–covered soil and bare soil applications of pendimethalin were observed for barnyardgrass densities. These data indicate that increased irrigation or rainfall level can increase efficacy of acetochlor and pyroxasulfone. Optimal rainfall or irrigation amounts required for efficacy similar to bare soil applications are herbicide specific, and some herbicides, such as pendimethalin, may be adversely affected by increased rainfall or irrigation.

This study was undertaken to investigate the integration effects of pretilachlor, oxadiazon, and dimethenamid with or without glyphosate in a stale seedbed method to control weedy rice in wet-seeded rice. The study, conducted in 2018 and 2019, comprised two seedbed treatments in main plots, with and without glyphosate (850 g ae ha−1), and four subplot treatments: pretilachlor, oxadiazon, dimethenamid, and unsprayed check. Fifteen days after glyphosate spray, each subplot was treated with preemergence herbicides at 500 g ai ha−1 under standing water conditions (2 to 3 in.), and the water level was maintained for 7 d. Pregerminated rice seeds (var. MR297) were hand-broadcasted in the moist soil at 120 kg ha−1 seeding rate. In 2019, the density and dry weight of weedy rice were 30% and 118% higher Gthan those observed in 2018, respectively. A stale seedbed with glyphosate reduced weedy rice dry weight by 12% as compared to what was observed in a stale seedbed without glyphosate. Addition of oxadiazon and pretilachlor to the stale seedbed drastically reduced weedy rice dry weight by 70% to 88% and 53% to 60% in both years. Dimethenamid contributed to a significant reduction of weedy rice dry weight of 19% in 2019 only but failed to provide a positive economic return. Integration of pretilachlor and oxadiazon in a stale seedbed with glyphosate gave profitable returns of $84.00 to 311.4 ha−1 and $175.70 to 483.8 ha−1, respectively. Without the presence of glyphosate, pretilachlor and oxadiazon contributed a positive return of $318.90 and $469.40, respectively, in 2018, but the economic returns were negative in 2019. These results suggest that integration of pretilachlor or oxadiazon in a stale seedbed with glyphosate is more crucial when weedy rice infestation is high, but glyphosate can be excluded from the management regime when the weedy rice populations are low.

Small-seeded vegetable crop production is challenged by poor emergence, stand establishment and canopy development, as well as a lack of effective weed control options. The potential use of plant growth regulators such as gibberellic acid (GA) could enhance early emergence and growth rates while potentially synchronizing weed germination with control tactics. In response, a controlled environment study was conducted to investigate the effects of GA on garden beet, cabbage, carrot, and onion. At 7 d after seeding (DAS) carrot emergence was greater when carrot seeds were treated with 2, 4, 8, 16, or 64 ppm GA compared with nontreated seeds. Total carrot emergence over the study period was 14% greater when seeds were treated with 4 ppm GA compared with nontreated seeds. Treatment of cabbage with as low as 2 to 4 ppm GA increased cabbage emergence rate and total plant emergence over the study period relative to nontreated seeds. Onion response to GA treatment was variable and unremarkable and was hypothesized to be influenced by seed dormancy because emergence was also low with the nontreated seeds. The GA rates that stimulated vegetable crop seed germination and emergence were then explored with three common weed species to determine whether a similar response was observed. If so, GA could be used to stimulate weed emergence in synchrony with management tactics. Palmer amaranth emergence was strongly affected by GA treatment, whereby the total number of emerged plants was 48% greater when 4 ppm GA was applied than in the nontreated check. Velvetleaf emergence at 3 DAS with the 4 and 8 ppm GA was 2.9 and 3.0 plants pot−1, respectively, compared to no emergence in the nontreated pots. Redroot pigweed emergence was not affected by GA treatment at any rate.

Recent legalization of industrial hemp in the United States has led to increased interest among stakeholders to produce hemp for grain and fiber. However, owing to the lack of herbicides registered for use in hemp, producers are left with limited weed management strategies. Moreover, much of the agricultural land that could be used to cultivate industrial hemp may be prone to carryover of previously applied residual herbicides or physical drift from herbicides sprayed nearby. Industrial hemp sensitivity to herbicides is not well documented. Dose–response studies were conducted under controlled conditions in Madison, WI, screening two industrial hemp grain cultivars for tolerance to 44 preemergence and postemergence herbicides commonly used in corn and soybean. Treatments consisted of herbicides applied at 0×, 0.125×, 0.25×, 0.50×, 0.75×, 1×, 2×, and 4× the recommended maximum labeled rates based on soil type. Preemergence applications were delivered immediately after planting, whereas postemergence applications took place when hemp plants reached 5 to 10 cm in height. Nontreated plants served as the control and were used to estimate percent biomass reduction; dose–response curves were generated. Biomass reduction was >50% for rates under the suggested label rate for 23 preemergence and 21 postemergence herbicides tested. All herbicides tested resulted in >25% biomass reduction at the 0.125× rate, except for clopyralid applied preemergence and postemergence and saflufenacil applied preemergence. This is concerning, as the label rates are determined for effective weed control and the mitigation of herbicide resistance. Overall, these results indicate that industrial hemp is very sensitive to most herbicides tested. Growers should consider herbicide use history and surrounding crops when determining industrial hemp field selection to prevent significant plant injury due to herbicide carryover and drift. Further research into alternative methods of weed control will be vital to establishing hemp as a dominant crop once again.

Field studies were conducted to determine the effects of synthetic auxin herbicides at simulated exposure rates applied to ‘Covington’ sweetpotato propagation beds on the quality of nonrooted stem cuttings (slips). Treatments included diglycolamine salt of dicamba, 2,4-D choline plus nonionic surfactant (NIS), and 2,4-D choline plus glyphosate at 1/10, 1/33, or 1/66 of a 1X application rate (560 g ae ha−1 dicamba, 1,065 g ae ha−1 2,4-D choline, 1,130 g ae ha−1 glyphosate) applied at 2 or 4 wk after first slip harvest (WASH). Injury to sweetpotato 2 wk after treatment was greatest when herbicides were applied 2 WASH (21%) compared to 4 WASH (16%). More slip injury was caused by 2,4-D choline than by dicamba, and the addition of glyphosate did not increase injury over 2,4-D choline alone. Two weeks after the second application, sweetpotato slips were cut 2 cm above the soil surface and transplanted into production fields. In 2019, sweetpotato ground coverage 8 wk after transplanting was reduced 37% and 26% by the 1/10X rates of dicamba and 2,4-D choline plus NIS, respectively. Though dicamba caused less injury to propagation beds than 2,4-D choline with or without glyphosate, after transplanting, slips treated with 1/10X dicamba did not recover as quickly as those treated with 2,4-D choline. In 2020, sweetpotato ground coverage was 90% or greater for all treatments. Dicamba applied 2 WASH decreased marketable sweetpotato storage root yield by 59% compared to the nontreated check, whereas treatments including 2,4-D choline reduced marketable yield 22% to 29%. All herbicides applied at 4 WASH reduced marketable yield 31% to 36%. The addition of glyphosate to 2,4-D choline did not increase sweetpotato yield. Results indicate that caution should be taken when deciding whether to transplant sweetpotato slips that are suspected to have been exposed to dicamba or 2,4-D choline.

In this research, the deep-learning optimizers Adagrad, AdaDelta, Adaptive Moment Estimation (Adam), and Stochastic Gradient Descent (SGD) were applied to the deep convolutional neural networks AlexNet, GoogLeNet, VGGNet, and ResNet that were trained to recognize weeds among alfalfa using photographic images taken at 200×200, 400×400, 600×600, and 800×800 pixels. An increase in the image sizes reduced the classification accuracy of all neural networks. The neural networks that were trained with images of 200×200 pixels resulted in better classification accuracy than the other image sizes investigated here. The optimizers AlexNet and GoogLeNet trained with AdaDelta and SGD outperformed the Adagrad and Adam optimizers; VGGNet trained with AdaDelta outperformed Adagrad, Adam, and SGD; and ResNet trained with AdaDelta and Adagrad outperformed the Adam and SGD optimizers. When the neural networks were trained with the best-performing input image size (200×200 pixels) and the best-performing deep learning optimizer, VGGNet was the most effective neural network, with high precision and recall values (≥0.99) when validation and testing datasets were used. Alternatively, ResNet was the least effective neural network in its ability to classify images containing weeds. However, there was no difference among the different neural networks in their ability to differentiate between broadleaf and grass weeds. The neural networks discussed herein may be used for scouting weed infestations in alfalfa and further integrated into the machine vision subsystem of smart sprayers for site-specific weed control.

Horseweed is a North American indigenous plant species commonly found in Nebraska cropping systems. Horseweed management is challenging because of horseweed’s prolific seed production, long-distance seed dispersal via wind, competitiveness, and rapid evolution of herbicide resistance. Understanding the horseweed emergence pattern across Nebraska can contribute to implementing effective and more sustainable tactics to minimize its impact on cropping systems. Field studies were conducted during fall and spring from 2016 to 2018 in Lincoln (corn and soybean), North Platte (wheat stubble and soybean), and Scottsbluff (corn and fallow) to investigate the emergence pattern of horseweed accessions from Lincoln, North Platte, and Scottsbluff, NE. Results show that most horseweed seedling emergence occurred in fall (99%) and only a few seedlings emerged in spring across locations, except in the wheat stubble experiment at North Platte, where higher spring emergence was detected (3% to 22%). In four out of six experiments, the density of total emerged seedlings of each accession was greatest when established in their site of origin. Our results suggest that late fall and/or early spring is likely the best timing for horseweed management across Nebraska.

Foliar delivery of herbicides is a common means for plant management in aquatic environments. Though this technique is decades old, little is known about vegetative spray retention relative to this application method. A more complete understanding of maximizing herbicide retention could lead to improved plant management while simultaneously decreasing pesticide load in aquatic environments. Therefore outdoor mesocosm experiments were conducted in 2020 to evaluate the effect of adjuvant type on foliar spray retention in waterhyacinth [Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms]. Additionally, the effect of carrier volume on spray retention in waterhyacinth, waterlettuce (Pistia stratiotes L.), and giant salvinia (Salvinia molesta D.S. Mitchell) was documented. Spray deposition did not differ among the nine adjuvants tested; however, spray retention was reduced 6% to 11% when an adjuvant was excluded from the spray solution. The effect of carrier volume on spray retention in waterhyacinth, waterlettuce, and giant salvinia was also investigated. Decreases in spray retention were most sensitive to increased carrier volume in waterhyacinth, followed by giant salvinia and waterlettuce. Among species, spray retention potential, as determined by intercept estimates, was greatest in waterlettuce and giant salvinia regardless of carrier volume. Asymptotes estimates for waterhyacinth, waterlettuce, and giant salvinia were 33%, 46%, and 79% spray retention, respectively. In other words, spray retention was the lowest and remained relatively constant at these values for the high carrier volumes tested (935 and 1,870 L ha−1), which were likely due to the presence of pubescence on leaves and flatter leaf architecture represented by waterlettuce and giant salvinia compared to the glabrous vertical leaves of waterhyacinth. Future research will evaluate these concepts under field conditions.

Rigid ryegrass is a problematic weed species in winter crops and winter fallow; however, recently, this weed species has been observed in summer crops and fallow. These observations warrant the evaluation of different postemergence herbicides for its control. Outdoor pot studies were conducted during the spring and summer of 2021 to 2022 to determine the performance of POST herbicides on two summer-emerging (S3 and S6) and two winter-emerging (W3 and W8) accessions of rigid ryegrass. Across all accessions, butroxydim, clethodim, paraquat, and paraquat + amitrole at the field rate provided complete control of rigid ryegrass. Both summer-emerging accessions were found to be resistant to the field rates of glufosinate (750 g ai ha−1), glyphosate (454 g ae ha−1), haloxyfop (52 g ai ha−1), and pinoxaden (30 g ai ha−1). The S6 accession had the highest dose required for a 50% reduction in biomass for these herbicides (glufosinate 1,120 g ai ha−1, glyphosate 1,210 g ae ha−1, haloxyfop 140 g ai ha−1, and pinoxaden 55 g ai ha−1). This summer-emerging accession (S6) was also resistant to iodosulfuron. All four accessions were found susceptible to imazamox + imazapyr (a commercial mixture) and mesosulfuron. The study provides the first evidence of poor control of summer-emerging accessions of rigid ryegrass with different herbicides. Multiple-herbicide-resistant summer-emerging rigid ryegrass accessions would be a challenge to the production of summer crops (e.g., cotton and sorghum) as well as winter crops that rely on weed-free summer fallows for soil moisture retention; therefore these accessions warrant diversified management strategies.

Tolpyralate is an herbicide that is usually mixed with atrazine for broad-spectrum weed control in corn. Previous research has provided information on the effective dose (ED) of tolpyralate applied alone and in a 1:33.3 mixture with atrazine; however, tolpyralate is commercially applied at a dose of 30 to 40 g ai ha−1 with a minimum of 560 g ai ha−1 of atrazine. Therefore, five field trials were conducted over 3 yr (2019 to 2021) to determine the ED of atrazine to complement 30 g ai ha−1 of tolpyralate to achieve 80%, 90%, and 95% control of seven weed species 2, 4, and 8 wk after application (WAA). Tolpyralate was applied alone and in a mixture with atrazine doses ranging from 50 to 2,000 g ai ha−1. At 8 WAA, the ED of atrazine for 95% control of velvetleaf, common ragweed, common lambsquarters, and wild mustard was below the minimum label dose of atrazine on the commercial tolpyralate label, ranging from 430 to 520 g ai ha−1, which supports the use of the minimum label dose of atrazine. In contrast, redroot pigweed required 1,231 g ai ha−1 of atrazine to complement tolpyralate for 95% control 8 WAA. At 8 WAA, barnyardgrass and a mixture of green foxtail and giant foxtail (Setaria spp.) were not controlled by 80%, 90%, or 95% with tolpyralate applied alone or co-applied with any dose of atrazine evaluated in this study. The results of this study conclude that tolpyralate + atrazine is highly efficacious on several weed species at atrazine doses of 40 to 130 g ai ha−1 below the label dose of 560 g ai ha−1, but the use of the higher dose of tolpyralate or another herbicide may be required to improve control of redroot pigweed and grass weed species.

Following the introduction of dicamba-resistant (DR) soybean in 2017, concerns have increased with regard to dicamba off-target movement (OTM) onto sensitive crops, including vegetables. Field trials were conducted in New Jersey, New York, and Delaware to evaluate cucumber (‘Python’), eggplant (‘Santana’), and snap bean (‘Caprice’ and ‘Huntington’) injury and yield response to simulated dicamba drift rates. Crops were exposed to dicamba applied at 0, 0.056, 0.11, 0.56, 1.12, 2.24 g ae ha–1, representing 0, 1/10,000, 1/5,000, 1/1,000, 1/500, and 1/250 of the maximum soybean recommended label rate (560 g ae ha–1), respectively. Dicamba was applied either at the early vegetative (V2) or early reproductive (R1) stages. Minimal to no injury, vine growth reduction, or yield loss was noted for cucumber. Dicamba was more injurious to eggplant with up to 22% to 35% injury 2 wk after treatment (WAT) at rate ≥1.12 g ae ha–1; however, only the highest dicamba rate caused 27% reduction of the commercial yield compared to the nontreated control. Eggplant also showed greater sensitivity when dicamba exposure occurred at the R1 than at theV2 stage. Snap bean was the most sensitive crop investigated in this study. Injury 2 WAT was greater for ‘Caprice’ with dicamba ≥0.56 g ae ha–1 applied at V2 compared to R1 stage, whereas a similar difference occurred as low as 0.056 g ae ha–1 for ‘Huntington’. Compared to the nontreated control, reduction in plant height and biomass accumulation occurred for both cultivars at dicamba rate ≥0.56 g ae ha–1. Dicamba applied at 1.12 g ae ha–1 or greater resulted in 30% yield loss for ‘Caprice’, whereas ‘Huntington’ yield dropped 52% to 93% with dicamba ≥0.56 g ae ha–1. ‘Caprice’ bean yield was not influenced by dicamba timing of application. Conversely, ‘Huntington’ bean yield decreased by 8% following application at R1 compared to V2 stage.

Herbicides that inhibit very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) have been widely used for preemergence control of annual monocot and small-seeded dicot weed species, such as waterhemp, since their discovery in the 1950s. VLCFA-inhibiting herbicides are often applied in combination with active ingredients that possess residual activity on small-seeded broadleaf weeds, which can make their contribution to preemergence waterhemp control difficult to quantify. Bare-ground field experiments were designed to investigate the efficacy of eight VLCFA-inhibiting herbicides applied at their minimum and maximum labeled rates for control of Illinois waterhemp populations. Four different locations were selected, two of which contained previously characterized VLCFA inhibitor–resistant waterhemp populations in Champaign County (CHR) and McLean County (MCR). Two locations with VLCFA inhibitor–sensitive waterhemp populations included the University of Illinois South Farm in Urbana, IL, and the Orr Research Center in Perry, IL. Soils at the CHR, MCR, and Urbana locations contained greater than 3% organic matter, but less than 3% organic matter at Perry. Non-encapsulated acetochlor and alachlor controlled CHR and MCR waterhemp populations 28 d after treatment (DAT), whereas other VLCFA-inhibiting herbicides resulted in 61% and 76% control of the CHR and MCR populations, respectively. In contrast, all VLCFA-inhibiting herbicides resulted in 81% and 88% control of the Perry and Urbana waterhemp populations, respectively, 28 DAT. Waterhemp control decreased by 42 DAT, especially for the VLCFA inhibitor–resistant CHR and MCR populations. Overall, VLCFA-inhibiting herbicides remain effective for controlling sensitive waterhemp, but most are not effective for controlling VLCFA inhibitor–resistant waterhemp populations. Proper herbicide stewardship and integrated weed management practices should be implemented to maintain VLCFA-inhibiting herbicide efficacy for waterhemp management in the future.

Weed management is one of the major challenges responsible for growers’ reluctance to switch from conventional to organic vegetable production. Competition from uncontrolled weeds can significantly reduce the yield and water use efficiency (WUE) of vegetable crops. A field study was conducted during the summers of 2019 and 2020 at the Quaker Research Farm of Texas Tech University, in Lubbock, TX, to determine physiology, plant growth, yield, soil water depletion pattern, and WUE of pumpkin as affected by five weed control treatments: 1) ammonium nonanoate 5% ai, 2) ammonium nonanoate 6% ai, 3) clove oil + cinnamon oil 4.5% ai, 4) clove oil + cinnamon oil 9% ai, and 5) an untreated control. Each plot received the same herbicide treatment at 20 and 30 d after planting (DAP). The experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with four replications of each treatment. Both herbicides resulted in significant weed suppression compared to the untreated control and weed control was 88% to 98% with ammonium nonanoate and 39% to 69% with clove oil + cinnamon oil. Photosynthesis rate, stomatal conductance, shoot dry biomass, average fruit weight, total fruit yield, and WUE of pumpkin were significantly higher in plants that were treated with ammonium nonanoate compared to the untreated control. All the aforementioned parameters were not significantly different between clove oil + cinnamon oil and the untreated control. Use of higher active ingredient concentration did not improve the performance of either herbicide. Soil water depletion and evapotranspiration were comparable among all the treatments. Based on the results, ammonium nonanoate at its lower concentration could be an option for effective weed control, and for improving fruit yield and WUE of pumpkin.

Smooth pigweed is one of the most troublesome weeds in Argentina. The objective of this study was to evaluate the sensitivity of 50 smooth pigweed accessions to fomesafen, topramezone, glyphosate, 2,4-D, and dicamba. Accessions were collected from soybean fields in various cropping areas in Argentina. The herbicide treatments included 2,4-D (1,140 g ae ha−1), dicamba (560 g ae ha−1), fomesafen (250 g ai ha−1), topramezone (34 g ai ha−1), and glyphosate (1,080 g ae ha−1). Plant survival was evaluated 30 d after each treatment application. Of the smooth pigweed accessions tested, 84% and 76% were susceptible (0% survival) to 2,4-D and dicamba, respectively. More than 90% of the accessions showed high (>60%) survival to glyphosate. While none of the accessions showed total sensitivity (0% survival) to the other herbicides evaluated, 43% and 72% of the accessions showed greater than 60% survival to fomesafen and topramezone, respectively. The differences in survival among accessions confirm the existence of genetic variability in Argentinian smooth pigweed and suggest that weed management practices should be prioritized to preserve the efficacy of these commonly used herbicides.

Successful weed management, particularly use of chemical control, is very important for commercial lettuce production on organic soils in the Everglades Agricultural Area in south Florida. Field experiments were conducted in 2016 and 2017 to determine the efficacy of herbicides (pronamide, bensulide, imazethapyr, or oxyfluorfen) applied preemergence (PRE) either alone or followed by a postemergence (POST) application of imazethapyr for weed control and lettuce (romaine and iceberg) yield. Preemergence-applied oxyfluorfen (0.56 kg ha−1) resulted in significant lettuce injury, including stand loss, while PRE applications of pronamide (4.44 kg ha−1), bensulide (5.6 and 10.1 kg ha−1), or imazethapyr (0.035 g ha−1) resulted in transient lettuce injury and no significant stand loss. Similarly, PRE-applied pronamide, bensulide, and imazethapyr followed by POST-applied imazethapyr did not result in significant lettuce stand loss or injury. When contrasted as a group, PRE-applied herbicides followed by a POST application of imazethapyr provided better spiny amaranth and common lambsquarters control compared with PRE-applied herbicides or POST-applied imazethapyr-only treatments. Lettuce yield was highest with PRE herbicides followed by POST imazethapyr compared with PRE herbicides or POST-applied imazethapyr-only treatments, indicating a yield benefit of having a PRE followed by POST herbicide weed control program in lettuce grown on organic soils. However, oxyfluorfen is not an option for lettuce on organic soils because of unacceptable stand reduction and crop injury. Whether to apply pronamide, bensulide, or imazethapyr PRE followed by a POST application of imazethapyr for broadleaf weed control in lettuce on organic soils depends on the species present, cost, and ease of application.

Dose-response trials to determine the tolerance of summer squash and watermelon to fomesafen applied (over the top of black polyethylene mulch and respective row middles) pre-transplanting were performed between 2020 and 2021 at three Indiana locations: the Meigs Horticulture Research Farm (MEIGS), the Pinney Purdue Agricultural Center (PPAC), and the Southwest Purdue Agricultural Center (SWPAC). Summer squash trials were performed at the MEIGS and PPAC locations, and watermelon trials were performed at the MEIGS and SWPAC locations. The experiments for both summer squash and watermelon had a split-plot arrangement in which the main plot was herbicide rate, and the subplot was cultivar. Summer squash injury included necrotic leaf margin, chlorosis, brown and white spots, and stunting. Fomesafen rates from 262 to 1,048 g ai ha−1 in 2020 at both locations, and from 280 to 1,120 g ai ha−1 in 2021 at MEIGS did not affect summer squash yield. However, in 2021 at PPAC, fomesafen applied at rates from 280 to 1,120 g ha−1 delayed summer squash harvest and decreased marketable yield from 95% to 61% compared with the nontreated control. Watermelon injury included bronzing and stunting. Fomesafen rates from 210 to 840 g ai ha−1 did not affect marketable watermelon yield or fruit number. Crop safety was attributed to rain, which washed off most of the herbicide from the polyethylene mulch before plants were transplanted or little to no rain after transplant. Injury was observed only when there was no rain before transplant followed by excessive rain shortly after transplant. Overall, the 1× rate used for each trial was safe for use 1 d before transplanting summer squash and 6 to 7 d before transplanting watermelon.

The influence of weeds on cranberry yield and quality is not well known and cannot be extrapolated from other cropping systems given the unique nature of both cranberry production and the weed species spectrum. The work presented here addresses this need with four common weed species across multiple production seasons and systems in Wisconsin, Massachusetts, and New Jersey: Carolina redroot, earth loosestrife, bristly dewberry, and polytrichum moss. The objectives were to use these representative species to quantify the impact of weed density, groundcover, and biomass on several cranberry yield components and related interactions with other cranberry pests, and to determine whether these relationships were consistent enough across seasons to be reliably used in weed management decision-making. The relationships between Carolina redroot and bristly dewberry growth measures and marketable cranberry yield were highly significant (P ≤ 0.001 in 12 of 13 regressions) and consistent across growing seasons, but not significant for similar regressions with earth loosestrife. In particular, the strong relationship between Carolina redroot and bristly dewberry visual groundcover observations and cranberry yield suggests a simple way for growers and crop scouts to reliably estimate yield loss. The relationship between polytrichum moss biomass and cranberry yield was also significant in both years, but not consistent between years. Weed competition also affected cranberry quality, in that Carolina redroot density was strongly related to the percentage of insect-damaged fruit and bristly dewberry growth reduced cranberry color development. On a practical level, this information can be used to educate growers, consultants, agrichemical registrants, and regulators about the impacts of weeds on cranberry yield and quality, and to economically prioritize management efforts based on the weed species and extent of infestation.

The southern United States produces 90% of the nation’s cotton, and the Texas High Plains is the largest contiguous cotton producing region. Since 2011, glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth has complicated cotton production, and alternatives to glyphosate are needed. Integrating soil residual herbicides into a weed management program is a crucial step to control glyphosate resistant weeds before emergence. The recent development of p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD)-resistant cotton by BASF Corporation may allow growers to use isoxaflutole in future weed management programs. In 2019 and 2020, field experiments were conducted in New Deal, Lubbock, and Halfway, Texas, to evaluate HPPD-resistant cotton response to isoxaflutole applied preemergence (PRE) or early postemergence (EPOST) and to determine the efficacy of isoxaflutole when used as part of a season-long weed management program. At the New Deal location, cotton response was observed following the EPOST application, but it never exceeded 10%. Cotton response was greatest following the PRE application in Lubbock in 2019 but did not exceed 14%. In 2020 in Lubbock, cotton was replanted due to severe weather. There was <1% cotton response following the PRE application, and maximum cotton response observed was 9% following EPOST and mid-postemergence (MPOST) applications. Cotton lint yields were not different from those of the nontreated, weed-free control at either location. In non-crop weed control studies in Halfway, all treatments controlled Palmer amaranth ≥94% 21 d after the EPOST application. Twenty-one days after the MPOST treatment, systems with isoxaflutole applied EPOST controlled Palmer amaranth by 88% to 93%, while systems with isoxaflutole PRE controlled Palmer amaranth by 94% to 98%. End-of-season Palmer amaranth control was lowest in the system without isoxaflutole (88%) and when isoxaflutole was used EPOST (88% to 91%). These studies suggest that the use of isoxaflutole in cotton weed management systems may improve season-long control of several troublesome weeds with no adverse effects on cotton yield and quality.

The role of weed suppression by the cultivated crop is often overlooked in annual row cropping systems. Agronomic practices such as planting time, row spacing, tillage and herbicide selection may influence the time of crop canopy closure. The objective of this research was to evaluate the influence of the aforementioned agronomic practices and their interaction with the adoption of an effective preemergence (PRE) soil residual herbicide program on soybean canopy closure and yield. A field experiment was conducted in 2019 and 2020 in Arlington, WI, as a 2×2×2×2 factorial in a randomized complete block design, including early (late April) and standard (late May) planting time, narrow (38 cm) and wide (76 cm) row spacing, conventional tillage and no-till, and soil-applied PRE herbicide (yes and no; flumioxazin 150 g ai ha−1 + metribuzin 449 g ai ha−1 + pyroxasulfone 190 g ai ha−1). All plots were maintained weed-free throughout the growing season. In both years, early planted soybeans reached 90% green canopy cover (T90) before (7 to 9 d difference) and yielded more (188 to 902 kg ha−1 difference) than the standard planted soybeans. Narrow-row soybeans reached T90 earlier than wide-row soybeans (4 to 7 d difference), but yield was similar between row spacing treatments. Conventional tillage resulted in a higher yield compared to a no-till system (377 kg ha−1 difference). The PRE herbicide slightly delayed T90 (4 d or less) but had no impact on yield. All practices investigated herein influenced the time of soybean canopy closure but only planting time and tillage impacted yield. Planting soybeans earlier and reducing their row spacing expedites the time to canopy closure. The potential delay in canopy development and yield loss if soybeans are allowed to compete with weeds early in the season would likely outweigh the slight delay in canopy development by an effective PRE herbicide.

Water seeding is a common cropping strategy in mechanized rice systems. Water seeding of rice can suppress grass weeds, but it can also encourage aquatic weeds and grass ecotypes that escape deep floodwater. In addition, water seeding prevents many cultural methods of weed control and limits available herbicides. Selection pressure from a limited palette of herbicides has resulted in widespread resistance in rice grown in California. This study examined a novel combination of drill seeding and a stale seedbed (“stale-drill”) as a means of using a nonselective herbicide to manage weeds before rice emergence. In 2016 and 2017, rice cultivar ‘M-206’ was drilled at a rate of 120 kg ha−1 to 1.3-cm, 2.5-cm, and 5.1-cm depths. Planting rice deeper than 1.3 cm delayed emergence by 3 to 4 d. A postplant-burndown (PPB) treatment of glyphosate at 870 g ha−1 was applied just prior to rice emergence. Treatment delays had mixed effects on weed control. PPB treatment was more effective at controlling Echinochloa spp. in 2017, reducing density by 30%, 48%, and 73% at 1.3-cm, 2.5-cm, and 5.1-cm seeding depths, respectively. The greatest overall weed control either year was found with applications of glyphosate + pendimethalin followed by penoxsulam + cyhalofop at 1.3-cm planting depth. Rice stand and yield components were more strongly affected by planting depth in 2017 than in 2016, possibly owing to cool weather immediately after seeding. Yields in 2017 were reduced in deeper plantings by up to 72%. Therefore, if the stale-drill method is implemented with higher-vigor cultivars or higher seeding rates, we see potential in this method as a useful tool for reducing herbicide-resistant weeds in rice fields.