Early supplementation with oregano essential oil (EO) in milk replacer (MR) may improve growth, immune responses, the microbiota and the metabolome in dairy calves during pre-weaning and in adulthood. Sixteen female dairy calves (3 days of age) were divided in two groups (n = 8/group): the control group (no EO) and the EO group (0.23 ml of EO in MR during 45 days). After weaning, calves were kept in a feedlot and fed ad libitum. The animals were weighed, and blood and faecal samples were collected on days 3 (T0), 45 (T1) and 370 (T2) to measure the biochemical profile and characterise peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs; CD4+, CD8+, CD14+, CD21+ and WC1+), the metabolome and microbiota composition. The EO group only had greater average daily weight gain during the suckling (EO supplementation) period (P = 0.030). The EO group showed higher average CD14+ population (monocytes) values, a lower abundance of Ruminococcaceae UCG-014, Faecalibacterium, Blautia and Alloprevotella and increased abundances of Allistipes and Akkermansia. The modification of some metabolites in plasma, such as butyric acid, 3-indole-propionic acid and succinic acid, particularly at T1, are consistent with intestinal microbiota changes. The data suggest that early EO supplementation increases feed efficiency only during the suckling period with notable changes in the microbiota and plasma metabolome; however, not all of these changes can be considered desirable from a gut health point of view. Additional research studies is required to demonstrate that EOs are a viable natural alternative to antibiotics for improving calf growth performance and health.

This systematic review investigated the evidence for the therapeutic potential of essential oils (EOs) against Leishmania amazonensis. We searched available scientific publications from 2005 to 2019 in the PubMed and Web of Science electronic databases, according to PRISMA statement. The search strategy utilized descriptors and free terms. The EOs effect of 35 species of plants identified in this systematic review study, 45.7% had half of the maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) 10 < IC50 ⩽ 50 μg mL−1 and 14.3% had a 10 < IC50μg mL−1 for promastigote forms of L. amazonensis. EOs from Cymbopogon citratus species had the lowest IC50 (1.7 μg mL−1). Among the plant species analyzed for activity against intracellular amastigote forms of L. amazonensis, 39.4% had an IC50 10 < IC50 ⩽ 50 μg mL−1, and 33.3% had an IC50 10 < IC50μg mL−1. Aloysia gratissima EO showed the lowest IC50 (0.16 μg mL−1) for intracellular amastigotes. EOs of Chenopodium ambrosioides, Copaifera martii and Carapa guianensis, administered by the oral route, were effective in reducing parasitic load and lesion volume in L. amazonensis-infected BALB/c mice. EOs of Bixa orellana and C. ambrosioides were effective when administered intraperitoneally. Most of the studies analyzed in vitro and in vivo for the risk of bias showed moderate methodological quality. These results indicate a stimulus for the development of new phytotherapy drugs for leishmaniasis treatment.

Essential oils (EOs) are considered a new class of ecological products aimed at the control of insects for industrial and domestic use; however, there still is a lack of studies involving the control of fleas. Ctenocephalides felis felis, the most observed parasite in dogs and cats, is associated with several diseases. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro activity, the establishment of LC50 and toxicity of EOs from Alpinia zerumbet (Pers.) B. L. Burtt & R. M. Sm, Cinnamomum spp., Laurus nobilis L., Mentha spicata L., Ocimum gratissimum L. and Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle against immature stages and adults of C. felis felis. Bioassay results suggest that the method of evaluation was able to perform a pre-screening of the activity of several EOs, including the discriminatory evaluation of flea stages by their LC50. Ocimum gratissimum EO was the most effective in the in vitro assays against all flea stages, presenting adulticide (LC50 = 5.85 μg cm−2), ovicidal (LC50 = 1.79 μg cm−2) and larvicidal (LC50 = 1.21 μg cm−2) mortality at low doses. It also presented an excellent profile in a toxicological eukaryotic model. These findings may support studies involving the development of non-toxic products for the control of fleas in dogs and cats.

The current study evaluated growth performance and digestion responses of finishing bulls fed diets containing 825 g/kg flint maize [dry matter (DM) basis] ground to medium (1.66 mm; MG) or coarse particle sizes (2.12 mm; CG), with added monensin (26 mg/kg; DM basis; MON) or a blend of essential oils (BEO) + exogenous α-amylase (AM; 90 mg/kg + 560 mg/kg commercial product, respectively, DM basis). In Expt 1, 256 Nellore bulls were blocked by initial body weight (BW) (360 ± 11.7 kg) and assigned to 48 pens in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments. Effect of a maize particle size × feed additive interaction was not detected for final BW, DM intake (DMI), average daily gain (ADG) and feed efficiency. The DMI was greater for bulls fed BEO + AM v. MON. Final BW and ADG tended to be greater for bulls fed CG than MG maize. An interaction was detected for hot carcass weight which was 11 kg heavier for bulls fed BEO + AM v. MON in diets containing CG, but not MG particle size. In Expt 2, four ruminally cannulated Nellore steers were offered the same treatments as Expt 1, in a 4 × 4 Latin Square design. Intake of most nutrients was greater for steers fed CG than steers fed MG maize. In summary, feeding bulls CG maize increased growth performance and carcass characteristics compared with MG. The combination of BEO + AM resulted in heavier carcass weights compared with MON supplementation when included in diets containing CG maize.

The essential oil (EO) of Thymus capitatus, seven fractions (F1–F7) obtained from silica gel chromatography, and several pure EO components were evaluated with respect to in vitro activities against Echinococcus multilocularis metacestodes and germinal layer (GL) cells. Attempts to evaluate physical damage in metacestodes by phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI) assay failed because EO and F1–F7 interfered with the PGI-activity measurements. A metacestode viability assay based on Alamar Blue, as well as transmission electron microscopy, demonstrated that exposure to EO, F2 and F4 impaired metacestode viability. F2 and F4 exhibited higher toxicity against metacestodes than against mammalian cells, whereas EO was as toxic to mammalian cells as to the parasite. However, none of these fractions exhibited notable activity against isolated E. multilocularis GL cells. Analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry showed that carvacrol was the major component of the EO (82.4%), as well as of the fractions F3 (94.4%), F4 (98.1%) and F5 (90.7%). Other major components of EO were β-caryophyllene, limonene, thymol and eugenol. However, exposure of metacestodes to these components was ineffective. Thus, fractions F2 and F4 of T. capitatus EO contain potent anti-echinococcal compounds, but the activities of these two fractions are most likely based on synergistic effects between several major and minor constituents.

Control methods used to limit field losses caused by Bruchus rufimanus Boheman, 1833 consist of synthetic insecticides that pose health risks to farmers, consumers and the environment. In an attempt to find safer alternatives, we screened essential oils from the leaves of Rosmarinus officinalis collected in the Middle Atlas and Loukkos regions of Morocco in the laboratory as natural fumigants against B. rufimanus. These essential oils were extracted by steam distillation using a Clevenger distiller, characterised chemically by coupled gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and tested at five concentrations (0, 10, 20, 40, 80 µl/l air). The essential oils of R. officinalis mainly comprised oxygenated monoterpenes (Middle Atlas: 79.4%; Loukkos: 48.78%) and terpenes (Middle Atlas: 14.71%; Loukkos: 32.33%). The lethal concentrations (LC50) of Middle Atlas and Loukkos essential oils against male beetles ranged from, respectively, 46.53 to 1.19 µl/l air and 58.85 to 11.57 µl/l air. Similarly, doses of R. officinalis essential oils from Middle Atlas and Loukkos lethal to females, ranged from 44.6 to 2.08 µl/l air and from 53.00 to 5.38 µl/l air, respectively. Additionally, the lethal time (LT50 and LT99) of exposed adults ranged from 1–8 and from 2–13 days for different concentrations of R. officinalis essential oils from Middle Atlas and Loukkos, respectively. With no mortality recorded in the control groups, these findings demonstrate the fumigant potential of these oils against this bruchid under the storage conditions.

Crops that effectively compete with weeds may be more suitable in low-input agricultural systems. A 2-yr field experiment was conducted in northern Greece to assess the competitiveness of seven annual aromatic plants (anise, sweet fennel, sweet basil, dill, coriander, parsley, and lacy phacelia) on common purslane, common lambsquarters, black nightshade, and barnyardgrass. The phytotoxicity of the essential oils produced by these aromatic plants was also determined using a perlite-based bioassay with barnyardgrass. Separation, identification, and quantification of the volatile compounds of these essential oils were also performed. After the harvest of the aromatic plants (8 wk after planting), the greatest weed fresh weight reduction (94 to 100%) was recorded in lacy phacelia, whereas the least (0 to 30%) was recorded in parsley. Lacy phacelia and sweet fennel produced the greatest fresh biomass yield in weedy and weed-free treatments, whereas parsley, dill, and coriander produced the lowest. Biomass of sweet fennel and anise was reduced by only 9 to 11% by weed competition, whereas biomass of lacy phacelia was not significantly affected. The essential oils isolated from sweet fennel and sweet basil were the most phytotoxic on barnyardgrass, whereas those isolated from lacy phacelia and anise were the least phytotoxic. Conclusively, aromatic plants with great competitiveness such as lacy phacelia, anise, and sweet fennel provided great weed suppression and they could be cultivated with low inputs in herbicides. However, high competitiveness of aromatic plants may not always be correlated with high essential oil phytotoxicity.

The poultry industry is currently facing a serious problem of controlling coccidiosis, owing to the development of drug resistance against commonly available anticoccidials. Furthermore, an increasing demand in the consumers for drug residue free poultry and poultry products has led to the development of alternative strategies for the treatment and control of avian coccidiosis. In response to the invasion of Eimeria species in coccidiosis, oxidative stress is created by host cellular response which imparts pathology to the host tissue besides damaging the parasite. Hence, in order to alleviate the damage caused by oxidative stress during coccidiosis, the use of essential oils (EOs) rich in antioxidant compounds is being considered as an appealing approach. However, results are very divergent and often not as satisfactory as expected. Essential oils, as natural products, obtained from aromatic plants have the potential to serve as an alternate to anticoccidials. The present work aims to review the current state of knowledge, informative collection of results obtained over the years and to attain a critical decision in aspects of the use of EOs as anticoccidials.

The adaptation of dairy cows to methane (CH4)-mitigating feed additives was evaluated using the in vitro gas production (GP) technique. Nine rumen-fistulated lactating Holstein cows were grouped into three blocks and within blocks randomly assigned to one of three experimental diets: Control (CON; no feed additive), Agolin Ruminant® (AR; 0.05 g/kg dry matter (DM)) or lauric acid (LA; 30 g/kg DM). Total mixed rations composed of maize silage, grass silage and concentrate were fed in a 40 : 30 : 30 ratio on DM basis. Rumen fluid was collected from each cow at days −4, 1, 4, 8, 15 and 22 relative to the introduction of the additives in the diets. On each of these days, a 48-h GP experiment was performed in which rumen fluid from each individual donor cow was incubated with each of the three substrates that reflected the treatment diets offered to the cows. DM intake was on average 19.8, 20.1 and 16.2 kg/day with an average fat- and protein-corrected milk production of 30.7, 31.7 and 26.2 kg/day with diet CON, AR and LA, respectively. In general, feed additives in the donor cow diet had a larger effect on gas and CH4 production than the same additives in the incubation substrate. Incubation substrate affected asymptotic GP, half-time of asymptotic CH4 production, total volatile fatty acid (VFA) concentration, molar proportions of propionate and butyrate and degradation of organic matter (OMD), but did not affect CH4 production. No substrate×day interactions were observed. A significant diet×day interaction was observed for in vitro gas and CH4 production, total VFA concentration, molar proportions of VFA and OMD. From day 4 onwards, the LA diet persistently reduced gas and CH4 production, total VFA concentration, acetate molar proportion and OMD, and increased propionate molar proportion. In vitro CH4 production was reduced by the AR diet on day 8, but not on days 15 and 22. In line with these findings, the molar proportion of propionate in fermentation fluid was greater, and that of acetate smaller, for the AR diet than for the CON diet on day 8, but not on days 15 and 22. Overall, the data indicate a short-term effect of AR on CH4 production, whereas the CH4-mitigating effect of LA persisted.

Medicinal plants are the vital source of numerous structurally diverse pharmacologically active metabolites collectively called as secondary metabolites finding extensive applications in traditional systems of medicine and in pharmaceutical industries. Several distinctive and complex pathways operate in an interactive manner via metabolic networks that are responsible for the accumulation of such highly specialized metabolites. Secondary metabolites are believed to play a wide spectrum of physiological and functional roles in plants, many of which being investigated and supported by the experimental studies. Biosynthetic pathway related studies on various aspects in these medicinal plants have been found very tedious owing to several issues in plants such as considerably lower metabolite concentrations in native tissues, existence at different locations, and highly complex multi-step pathways, etc. Pathway elucidation and gene/enzyme discovery for studying metabolic pathway evolution and subsequent engineering could be better achieved by mining various pathway databases and reconstruction of metabolic networks available at different omics databases. Though medicinal plants have a limited range of genomic sequences available, however recently, next generation sequencing is being widely used to generate a comprehensive transcriptomic resource for these plants. It is anticipated that databases and resources generated from these studies are likely to play a key role towards the study and exploitation of metabolites from medicinal plants in near future. In this review, we have discussed next generation sequencing approaches, which were used for the generation of transcriptomic resources for several medicinally important plants. The relevance of transcriptomic approaches in curation of the pathways linked with the synthesis of major secondary metabolites along with their precursors of pharmaceutical importance in medicinal plants is also comprehensively analysed.

This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of dietary addition of cinnamon oil (CIN), cinnamaldehyde (CDH), or monensin (MON) on enteric methane (CH4) emission in dairy cows. Eight multiparous lactating Holstein cows fitted with ruminal cannulas were used in a replicated 4×4 Latin square design (28-day periods). Cows were fed (ad libitum) a total mixed ration ((TMR); 60 : 40 forage : concentrate ratio, on a dry matter (DM) basis) not supplemented (CTL), or supplemented with CIN (50 mg/kg DM intake), CDH (50 mg/kg DM intake), or monensin (24 mg/kg of DM intake). Dry matter intake (DMI), nutrient digestibility, N retention, and milk performance were measured over 6 consecutive days. Ruminal degradability of the basal diet (with no additive) was assessed using in sacco incubations (0, 2, 4, 8, 16, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h). Ruminal fermentation characteristics (pH, volatile fatty acids (VFA), and ammonia (NH3)) and protozoa were determined over 2 days. Enteric CH4 emissions were measured over 6 consecutive days using the sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) tracer gas technique. Adding CIN, CDH or MON to the diet had no effects on DMI, N retention, in sacco ruminal degradation and nutrient digestibility of the diet. Ruminal fermentation characteristics and protozoa numbers were not modified by including the feed additives in the diet. Enteric CH4 emission and CH4 energy losses averaged 491 g/day and 6.59% of gross energy intake, respectively, and were not affected by adding CIN, CDH or MON to the diet. Results of this study indicate that CIN, CDH and MON are not viable CH4 mitigation strategies in dairy cows.

The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis of an improved gut environment of post-weaning piglets when administered a blend of essential oils (EO; thymol and cinnamaldehyde) and an enzyme combination (xylanase and β-glucanase (XB)) either alone or in combination. To assess the effect of dietary treatments, faecal nutrient digestibility and microbial counts, as well as ileum histology and gene expression of inflammatory mediators were evaluated. One hundred and ninety-two weaned piglets were allocated into four experimental treatments, and fed the basal diet (CTRL) either without or with EO, XB or their combination (EO+XB) for a 42-day period. The experiment concerning digestibility was designed with two periods (period I: days 15 to 21; period II: days 29 to 35) and the faeces were collected on days 20, 21, 34 and 35. On day 42, six piglets from each treatment were slaughtered. It was found that EO, XB and EO+XB supplementation did not affect (P>0.05) the growth performance of the piglets from days 0 to 42. Moreover, no dietary effect on faecal score was observed. Faecal digestibility of dry matter, organic matter, ash, dietary fibre, lipid, CP and NDF were increased from period I to period II (P<0.01 to P=0.06), while no effect (P>0.05) of EO, XB or their combination on the faecal digestibility was observed at both periods. Compared with the CTRL diet, dietary XB reduced the faecal Lactobacillus and Escherichia coli counts but increased the Lactobacillus to Coliforms ratio on day 42 (P=0.02, 0.03 and 0.03, respectively), and all the additives supplementations decreased the counts of faecal Coliforms on day 42 (P<0.01). XB supplementation increased the villus to crypt ratio (P=0.04) and reduced the mucosal macrophages number (P<0.01) in the ileum compared with the CTRL group, and dietary EO or EO+XB decreased the number of lymphatic follicles (P=0.01 and P<0.01, respectively) and mucosal macrophages (P=0.02 and P<0.01, respectively). In addition, the interleukin (IL)-1α was downregulated in piglets treated with EO+XB compared with the EO group (P=0.02). In conclusion, the administration of EO, XB or their combination was effective in improving ileum histology, and EO+XB supplementation might benefit the modulation of the expression of ileum inflammatory cytokines in piglets.

Introduction. A study on postharvest treatments of wild peppers was carried out in Madagascar with the aim of describing the local practices and measuring their impacts on the quality of the products. Materials and methods. Four distinct pepper production systems (PPS) were observed, described and compared in two separate areas in East Madagascar. Major quality characteristics (piperine and essential oil) of the peppercorns were assessed in samples collected in the four systems. Results and discussion. Two main postharvest processes (dry and wet) were identified. The wet process differed from the dry one in that it involved two specific operations, blanching and sweating. The processes influenced the color of the pepper. Piperine contents were not affected by any of the pepper production systems, whereas essential oil contents were reduced by up to 27% by the wet process. After processing, piperine contents were up to eight times lower, whereas essential oil contents were up to six times higher than the specifications of the standard ISO 959-1 for black pepper ready for commercialization. Conclusion. Two main processes (dry and wet) for treatment of peppercorns in Madagascar were identified and described. The dry process, with two steps less, appeared to be easier to implement and more respectful to the product. Improving maturity control and processing according to the quality expected by the markets will be necessary to promote Malagasy peppers.

A wide range of plant bioactive components (phytochemicals) have been identified as having potential to modulate the processes of fermentation in the rumen. The use of plants or plant extracts as natural feed additives has become a subject of interest not only among nutritionists but also other scientists. Although a large number of phytochemicals (e.g. saponins, tannins and essential oils) have recently been investigated for their methane reduction potential, there have not yet been major breakthroughs that could be applied in practice. A key tenet of this paper is the need for studies on the influence of plant components on methane production to be performed with standardized samples. Where there are consistent effects, the literature suggests that saponins mitigate methanogenesis mainly by reducing the number of protozoa, condensed tannins both by reducing the number of protozoa and by a direct toxic effect on methanogens, whereas essential oils act mostly by a direct toxic effect on methanogens. However, because the rumen is a complex ecosystem, analysis of the influence of plant components on the populations of methanogens should take into account not only the total population of methanogens but also individual orders or species. Although a number of plants and plant extracts have shown potential in studies in vitro, these effects must be confirmed in vivo.

Satureja hortensis and Zataria multiflora (Lamiaceae) essential oils were tested on Callosobruchus maculatus (Fabricius) to evaluate their effects on oviposition deterrence, egg hatching and mortality of adults. To obtain essential oils, dry leaves were subjected to hydrodistillation using a modified Clevenger-type apparatus. The experiments were conducted at 25 ± 1°C and 65 ± 5% relative humidity in dark conditions with five replications for each essential oil. When concentrations of both essential oils were higher, the insecticidal effect on eggs and adults increased and oviposition was more deterred. At the highest concentration (60 μl/l air) of S. hortensis and Z. multiflora essential oils, 91.2 and 85.4% of adults were killed, respectively. There were no significant differences in oviposition deterrence between the two essential oils. At the highest concentration (4.3 μl/l air) of S. hortensis and Z. multiflora essential oils, egg mortality was 94.5 and 77.3%, respectively. Probit analysis revealed LC50 for adults and eggs of C. maculatus of 1.50 and 1.13 μl/l air, respectively, for the S. hortensis essential oil and 1.76 and 2.23 μl/l air, respectively, for the Z. multiflora essential oil. The results suggest that the essential oils of these aromatic plants can be used as botanical fumigants to protect grains against C. maculatus.

Introduction. Sweet cherryfruit is a very perishable commodity, because fruits decay and losewater rapidly after harvest as a consequence of their high respiratoryrate. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effectof the combination of hot water plus essential oil treatments andhot water treatment alone on the quality of ‘0900 Ziraat’ sweetcherries during cold storage. Materials and methods.Fruits were divided into four groups and were treated by dippinginto water at 24 °C for 30 s (control), dipping into water at 60 °Cfor 30 s, and dipping into water at 60 °C for 30 s plus either mentholtreatment or thymol treatment. After treatments, all fruits werepacked in polypropylene bags and stored at 0–1 °C temperature and90–95% relative humidity for 45 days. Physical and chemical changeswere determined at 15-day intervals during storage. Resultsand discussion. All of the postharvest treatments improvedfruit quality characteristics compared with fruit of the control.According to the data, after 45 days of storage, combination treatments were found to be more effectivein controlling decay. The treated fruits had higher total anthocyaninand total phenolic compounds. In control fruits, total anthocyanin andtotal phenolic compounds initially showed a slight increase, buttheir accumulation significantly decreased with time.

The effect of a dietary phytogenic feed additive (PFA) inclusion level in mucin monosaccharide composition, mucosal morphometry and mucus histochemistry along the broiler intestinal tract was studied. Cobb male broilers (n = 525) were allocated into five experimental treatments that, depending on the type of addition in the basal diet (BD), were labeled as follows: C (BD based on maize–soybean meal with no other additions), E1 (80 mg PFA/kg BD), E2 (125 mg PFA/kg BD), E3 (250 mg PFA/kg of BD) and A (2.5 mg avilamycin/kg BD). Samples from duodenum, ileum and cecum of 14- and 42-day-old broilers were collected and analyzed. In 14-day-old broilers, treatments E2 and E3 had higher (P < 0.01) duodenal mannose than treatments C, E1 and A. Ileal mannose was lower (P < 0.05) in treatment C compared with PFA treatments, and ileal galactose (Gal) was higher (P < 0.01) in treatments E2 and E3 compared with C and A. Polynomial contrast analysis with respect to PFA inclusion level showed that in 14-day-old broilers there was a linear increase (P = 0.001) in duodenal mannose and a quadratic effect (P = 0.038) in duodenal N-acetyl-galactosamine with increasing PFA level. Ileal Gal and mannose increased linearly (P = 0.002 and P = 0.012, respectively) with PFA inclusion level. There were no significant differences between treatments in mucin monosaccharide molar ratios of 42-day-old broilers. However, increasing PFA inclusion level resulted in a linear decrease of ileal fucose (P = 0.021) and cecal N-acetylgalactosamine (P = 0.036). Experimental treatments did not differ (P > 0.05) regarding duodenal villus height (Vh), crypt depth (Cd) and Vh/Cd ratio, irrespective of broiler age and the intestinal segment examined. However, increasing dietary PFA inclusion level showed a pattern of linear increase of duodenal Vh/Cd ratio in 14-day-old broilers and ileal Vh in 42-day-old broilers (P = 0.039 and P = 0.039, respectively). Alcian Blue–Periodic Acid-Schiff (pH 2.5) staining of neutral and acidic mucins showed that the staining intensity of mucus layer in villi was fragment (i.e. tip, midsection and base) dependent, whereas in crypts it was dependent both on intestinal segment (i.e. duodenum, ileum and cecum) and fragment. Finally, mucus layer thickness did not differ (P > 0.05) between treatments, yet a pattern of linear increase (P < 0.05) with PFA inclusion level was observed in the duodenum of 42-day-old broilers. In conclusion, the dietary inclusion level of PFA modulated broiler intestinal mucin composition and morphology. Further studies are required to elucidate the physiological implications of such changes in host–microflora interactions.

The aim of our present study was to examine the regulation of xenobiotic- and antioxidant enzymes by phytogenic feed additives in the intestine and the liver of broilers. A total of 240 male Ross-308 broiler chickens (1 d old) were fed a commercial starter diet for 2 weeks. On day 15, the birds were assigned to six treatment groups of forty birds each. The control (Con) group was fed a diet without any additive for 3 weeks. The diet of group sulforaphane (SFN) contained broccoli extract providing 0·075 g/kg SFN, whereas the diets of the other four groups contained 0·15 g/kg essential oils from turmeric (Cuo), oregano (Oo), thyme and rosemary (Ro). Weight gain and feed conversion were slightly impaired by Cuo and Oo. In the jejunum SFN, Cuo and Ro increased the expression of xenobiotic enzymes (epoxide hydrolases 1 and 2 and aflatoxin B1 aldehyde reductase) and of the antioxidant enzyme haeme oxygenase regulated by an ‘antioxidant response element’ (ARE) compared to group Con. In contrast to our expectations in the liver, the expression of these enzymes was decreased by all the additives. Nevertheless, all the additives increased the Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity of the jejunum and the liver and reduced Fe-induced lipid peroxidation in the liver. We conclude that the up-regulation of ARE genes in the small intestine reduces oxidative stress in the organism and represents a novel mechanism by which phytogenic feed additives improve the health of farm animals.

The effectiveness of three natural compounds in slowing down the deterioration of microbial quality of Fior di latte cheese is addressed. In particular, the control of the growth of spoilage microorganisms and the determination of the Microbiological Stability Limit (MAL) were the main goals. A Central Composite Design (CCD) strategy was adopted to highlight possible combined effects between three essential oils: sage and two types of lemon. Results showed an increase in the MAL value for all cheese samples packaged with the antimicrobial compounds, compared with the control cheese. Moreover, the combinations of the three essential oils indicated that the substances can act in a synergistic or antagonistic way, depending on their concentrations. In particular, a synergistic effect was evident when the three compounds were used at about 3000 ppm.