This chapter discusses cognitive individual differences that affect learning processes and outcomes of second language. It answers broad questions such as Why do some learners seem to have such an easy time learning a second language? and Why do some learners sound like a first-language speaker but others don’t? The chapter examines how our cognitive abilities influence our learning, and how we might be able to improve our learning even if we have lower cognitive skills in some areas. Specific individual differences include general intelligence, working memory, and language learning aptitude (phonemic coding ability, grammatical sensitivity, rote memorization). The chapter then examines how cognitive individual differences mediate the impact of second language instruction, that is, aptitude–treatment interaction. The chapter includes less-investigated individual differences as well, such as neurodiversity, autism, ADHD, and dyslexia. The chapter concludes with learning strategies and pedagogical recommendations that help counter the negative impacts that cognitive individual differences have on second language learning.

The opening section of this chapter charts the history of the dyslexia construct. The distinction between scientific understandings of dyslexia (a difficulty in accurate and fluent word reading) and reading comprehension is emphasized. Different conceptions of dyslexia exist, however, and these are grouped within four categories, each of which is examined and critiqued in turn. Dyslexia 1 concerns an understanding whereby dyslexia refers to those with the most severe and persistent forms of reading. Dyslexia 2 describes the widely held view that only some struggling readers are dyslexic, and such individuals need to be identified by expert assessors using various cognitive tests. In these cases, the individual’s reading problem is often considered to be unexpected. The role of intelligence, and intelligence/reading discrepancy, as a marker of dyslexia is examined in significant detail. A Dyslexia 3 conception places emphasis on the struggling reader’s difficulty to make significant progress even when provided with high-quality intervention. Dyslexia 4 concerns the understanding that reading difficulties should be considered as only one part of a much broader dyslexic condition that may provide a number of compensatory gifts. The need to eschew unitary explanations in favor of multifactorial understandings of reading disability involving a combination of biology and environment is emphasized.

In this chapter, we explore how our brains help us read and understand written words. Imagine when you started school – you could talk, recognize some letters, and start to hear the sounds in words. These skills lay the groundwork for learning to read. Good language skills make it easier to learn to read. But heres the twist: our brains werent originally built for reading. Weve only been reading for a few thousand years, while weve been using spoken language for tens of thousands of years. So, our brains adapted to this new skill of reading. We also discuss a special part of the brain called the visual word form area that helps us recognize words. We explore how reading changes our brains and why its crucial to have both good language skills and a writing system around to help us become readers. Dyslexia, a reading difficulty, is also discussed. In simple terms, well uncover how our brains enable us to read by adapting to new cultural practices, like writing, and how they use our visual system to make reading possible.

provides high-level summaries of three research domains related to the reading of Chinese: How reading is taught and what is known about its normal development, what is known about atypical reading development (i.e., dyslexia), and what is known about the neural systems that support skilled reading. All three of these topics are discussed in relation to their counterparts in English, using the latter as a contrast to highlight similarities and differences between the reading of English versus Chinese.

Chapter 7 discusses the individual differences associated with neurodiversity that may impact how learners’ progress in a language classroom. Research findings associated with specific learning diagnoses (e.g., ADHD) and second language acquisition are also shared. Ideas for teachers to bring into their teaching practices, regardless of the neurodiversity among their learners, are detailed in the final section.

The book has combined a focus on both cognitive coping strategies and socio-emotional techniques for overcoming negative emotion. As such, the book has built on work completed for Dyslexia in Higher Education: Anxiety and Coping, but rather than aiming to raise awareness of the prevalence of anxiety and negative emotion, the book instead has focused on expanding the research undertaken on effective cognitive and emotional techniques used by dyslexic learners. This has enabled provision of a pragmatic, study skills development book for the purpose of supporting students with dyslexia to deal more effectively with their study tasks and learning experiences whilst at university. Consequently, the book’s main themes have focused on the presentation of strategies for overcoming barriers prevalent for the dyslexic learner both cognitively and emotionally. These have included ways in which technology can be utilised, making learning multisensory, applying practicality to study tasks and exemplifying the dyslexic learners featured in the book favourite ways of studying to make learning enjoyable. These have been presented with the aim of improving metacognition and metacognitive awareness, helping to reduce scotopic sensitivity, and ultimately have been intended to help the reader to cope with academic life cognitively and emotionally.

In this chapter, we focus on language development in individuals suffering from language and cognitive disorders. One of the major concerns of families and caregivers of individuals with these disorders is that exposure to more than one language may cause further difficulties, slow down, or hinder linguistic and cognitive development. Scientific research, however, shows that this is an unmotivated prejudice, and that bilingualism does not provide negative effects, but rather, can offer benefits. We explore the interaction between bilingualism and language disorders, discussing in particular developmental language disorders, developmental dyslexia, autism spectrum disorders, hearing loss, Down syndrome, and aphasia.

By contrast to Scotland and Wales, Ireland should be more fertile ground for the promotion of new speaker interests. This is because Ireland is an independent state and as Irish is the first language according to the constitution, it has been used within the education system for far longer than has Welsh or Gaelic. Moreover, the statutory education system features the teaching of Irish as a core subject which has created a social mass of 1,761,420 people – 39.8 per cent of the population – who can speak Irish, according to the 2016 Census. The overwhelming majority of these would be learners and a significant proportion would be assumed to be new speakers. However, the 2016 Census shows that, of these, only 73,803 – 4.2 per cent of the population – used Irish daily outside of the education system. Special attention is given to the role of government departments, Foras na Gaeilge and An Chomhairle um Oideachas Gaeltachta agus Gaelscolaiohta in promoting Irish and responding to the needs of new speakers.

Whatever affects the brain structures the creative trance, and what we view as imperfections may instead be alternate pathways to achievement. None of us is perfect, but as Jung says, we have an inner dynamic wholeness that transcends perfection and fuels self-evolution. The creative people in this chapter use dyslexia and attention deficit disorder, now known as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), to access their wholeness, and this, in turn, drives and shapes their creative trance. Eminent writers with dyslexia include Agatha Christie, William Butler Yeats, Jules Verne, and F. Scott Fitzgerald. Amadeus Mozart and Frank Lloyd Wright used the reveries of ADHD to create completed works in their minds, and Leonardo da Vinci who had both dyslexia and ADHD changed the course of Western art history. What makes life most difficult can also inspire strength, innovation, and genius. As the poet Emily Dickinson writes, “A wounded deer leaps the highest.”

Chapter 15 looks at the brain’s anatomy in terms of the areas important for language. It shows that, typically, the left hemisphere is widely responsible for language competence and performance. Readers learn about common methods and technologies used to study the brain, including lesion studies and autopsies, dichotic listening and split-brain studies, neuroimaging, and studies measuring the brain’s electric and magnetic fields. These methods have provided an incredible advantage to better understanding brain and language. This is especially apparent regarding language impairments that result from acquired brain damage or injury (either instantaneous or progressive). Some impairments discussed in the chapter include forms of aphasia: non-fluent, fluent, and primary progressive along with language disturbances primarily related to reading (e.g., alexia) and writing (e.g., agraphia) abilities. Finally, the chapter discusses how neurolinguistics informs what we know about the mental lexicon—words, their sounds, and meanings—along with morphology and syntax. Research using state-of-the-art technologies has informed us about which language functions rely on which brain structures.