This report on Hungarian politics in 2022 aims at explaining how the incumbent Fidesz-KDNP (Fidesz-Keresztény Demokrata Néppárt) government managed to uphold its dominance in Hungarian politics. Through nominating and electing the new president of Hungary, winning the parliamentary elections along with presenting a referendum reflecting the Fidesz political agenda, the government successfully maintained its public support in 2022 despite external challenges such as the war on Ukraine or the ongoing fraud feud with the European Union (EU) and internal conflicts resulting from economic pressures.

Icelandic politics in 2021 were strongly dominated by two features: the ongoing struggle with Covid-19 and the parliamentary election which took place on 25 September. Covid-19 was in many ways the primary task of government throughout the year and, while criticism of various restrictions of personal freedoms grew louder as the year wore on, the situation remained relatively calm compared to most other countries. The parliamentary election was to a certain extent overshadowed by the pandemic crisis and the opposition parties in particular had a difficult time of finding a clear voice in a situation where expert rule was the norm and by far the most prominent part of the government agenda. After four years in power, the three-way coalition of the Left-Greens, Independence Party and Progressive Party was re-elected in September, signalling a continuation of the partial return to stability which its formation in 2017 had signalled.

In 2021, as in the previous year, political dynamics in Switzerland were strongly influenced by the Covid-19 pandemic. Institutionally, the ‘special situation’ according to the Federal Law of Epidemics affected the power distribution between federal government and the subnational units. Moreover, compared with the first pandemic year, 2021 was marked by strong polarization of society and the political parties on several pandemic-related issues. One consequence of this were two referendums held on the Covid-19 law, which served as a legal basis for the Federal Council to mitigate the negative effects of the coronavirus pandemic on society and the economy. While voters supported the federal government in both cases, the rich direct-democratic year in Switzerland was otherwise dominated by a rejection of the other main governmental proposition, namely the revised CO2 law.

In 2024, while Switzerland was no longer grappling with immediate crises, the lingering effects of an overlapping crisis remained evident. Public dissatisfaction grew, driven by perceptions that state interventions disproportionately favoured banks and large corporations, while the needs of ordinary citizens amid a cost-of-living crisis were sidelined. This contributed to a broader crisis of representation. This article examines how direct democracy functions as a channel for expressing such discontent, focusing on the historic approval of a popular initiative to increase public welfare spending despite a strained federal budget. It concludes with a discussion of three key political issues: the landmark European Court of Human Rights ruling in KlimaSeniorinnen and Others v. Switzerland, the domestic debate about austerity measures and the conclusion of negotiations on a new EU–Switzerland deal.

During 2021, Spain faced problems arising from the COVID-19 pandemic, including high-risk public health situations in some regions. A vaccination campaign was carried out for the entire Spanish population, constrained by the arrival of doses and their distribution among regions. Several precepts of the legislation framing the COVID-19 state of alarm were declared unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court. The Cabinet underwent successive reshuffles prompted by the regional electoral processes held in Catalonia and Madrid, and by the balance of power between the two parties that formed the coalition government. In 2021, the labour market began to improve thanks to the arrival of European funds aimed at implementing programmes to mitigate the economic and social damage of the pandemic.

Resumen

Durante el año 2021 España atiende a los problemas derivados de la pandemia de la COVID y hace frente a situaciones de riesgo alto en algunas regiones. Desarrolla una campaña de vacunación a toda la población española condicionada por la llegada de dosis y su reparto entre las CCAA. Asimismo, se enfrenta a dos sentencias del Tribunal Constitucional que declaran inconstitucionales varios preceptos de la legislación que ampara el estado de alarma. En el ámbito político, destaca las sucesivas remodelaciones del Gobierno motivadas por los procesos electorales regionales celebrados en Cataluña y en Madrid y por el difícil equilibrio entre los miembros de los dos partidos de la coalición dentro y fuera del gobierno. En 2021 se inicia la recuperación del mercado laboral pero será gracias a los fondos europeos cuando el Gobierno ponga en marcha programas para la recuperación y evitar el daño económico y social tras la crisis sanitaria.

The year in politics was marked by the exposure of a number of scandals, chief among which concerned the privatisation of three public hospitals. Polls still continued to give the governing Labour Party a strong lead over the opposition Nationalist Party, which showed little sign of recovery. The economy performed well, but inflation hit people's spending power, and sustained growth continued to be reflected in overcrowding and congestion. The abortion debate closed in an anti-climax. A brighter picture emerged in foreign relations as Malta took its place in the UN Security Council and was chosen to chair the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe.

The year 2023 saw more stability in British politics, with new Prime Minister Rishi Sunak seeking to make his mark on the policy agenda with the announcement of five key policy pledges in January. As part of seeking to address these, the government placed an increased emphasis on immigration over the year, particularly in tackling illegal crossings over the English Channel. The government also moved away from its net zero agenda. Despite this, the party's poll position did not improve. New peers were introduced by departing Prime Ministers Johnson and Truss. Boris Johnson also stepped down as a Member of Parliament, and a November Cabinet reshuffle saw former Prime Minister David Cameron re-enter politics as Foreign Secretary.