One hundred and twenty-eight pigs were reared in barren or enriched environments from birth to slaughter at 21 weeks of age. Pigs remained as litter-mate groups until 8 weeks of age when they were mixed into groups of eight animals. These groups were balanced for gender and weight and contained two pigs from each of four different litters. Each pig was assigned high or low social status on the basis of relative success in aggressive interactions at mixing. Injury levels were assessed on a weekly basis from 8 to 21 weeks of age. Pigs were exposed to two group food competition tests after a period of food restriction at 10 weeks of age, and to an individual novel pen test at 11 weeks of age. Behavioural and plasma cortisol responses to both types of test were recorded. Low social status was associated with increased injuries to the head, neck and ears, and therefore reduced welfare. Pigs with low social status showed reduced resource-holding ability in the food competition test, and greater avoidance of a novel object during the novel pen test It is suggested that avoidance of the novel object reflected ‘learned’ fearfulness in these individuals. Environmental enrichment did not negate the effect of low social status on injury levels, but did appear to reduce the negative influence of low social status on stress during food restriction, and led to a reduction in fearfulness in response to the novel pen test. These results suggest that environmental enrichment may improve the welfare of growing pigs with low social status.

The commercial killing of kangaroos provides multiple benefits to society, but also causes both deliberate and unintended harms to kangaroos. The ethics of the kangaroo industry is assessed in terms of whether the assumed benefits justify the welfare costs. An analysis of the stated benefits indicates that killing for damage mitigation is beneficial mainly during drought and not at current levels; that there is a commercial value, although considerably lower than previously estimated, and that demonstrable environmental benefits from commercial killing of kangaroos are lacking; and that the commercial kill may ameliorate the suffering of kangaroos during drought. Welfare practices are very difficult to assess and regulate due to the size and remote nature of the industry. A combination of empirical data on welfare outcomes and inferences drawn from behavioural and reproductive knowledge of the commercially killed species are utilised to assess harm. The welfare costs include deliberate and indirect harm to dependent young (a by-product of the commercial kill), and a number of unintended harms to adult kangaroos, including increased mortality during drought, inhumane killing of a portion of adult kangaroos, and a disruption of social stability and the evolutionary potential of individuals. Furthermore, a substantial gap exists between the intended welfare standards of the code of practice governing the kangaroo industry and the welfare outcomes for both dependent young and adult kangaroos. We found that, on balance, the benefits are lower than expected and the welfare costs are likely to be considerably higher than acceptable. More research, particularly at the point of kill, is necessary to verify and assess the extent of harms. A number of improvements are suggested to the code of practice to improve welfare outcomes.

For monitoring purposes there is a need for a protocol to measure foot-pad dermatitis (FPD) on-farm. Therefore, we studied the effect of number of birds sampled, number of locations sampled and sampling location in a broiler house on the accuracy of measurement, in order to construct a protocol that can be applied in practice. Samples were taken from eight commercial flocks (Ross 308) at up to ten locations with up to 25 birds sampled per location. Foot-pad lesions were scored in all birds for both feet using the Swedish scoring method. No significant differences in FPD score were found between the first five birds and all birds sampled at a particular location. Although locations near the walls did not differ in FPD score from locations in the central area of a house, the severity of foot-pad lesions was unevenly distributed over the house. A model was constructed showing the inaccuracy related to the number of locations sampled in the house and the number of birds sampled per location. The model shows that in situations with at least five locations differences in inaccuracy are relatively small when a total of 100 birds or more is sampled. Inaccuracy is largest in a flock with variation in foot-pad scores, as compared to flocks with little variation. The results of this experiment can be used to determine the optimal sample size in a commercial broiler house.

An experiment was conducted to study the effect four different management techniques to enhance colostrum intake had on piglet and litter performance. Treatments were performed on piglets born weighing 1.30 kg or less (SP) within 6 h of birth: control group (CON); split-nursing of the litter for 2 h allowing only the SP piglets free access to teats (SPLIT); oral supplementation with 15 ml of sow colostrum to the SP piglets of the litter (COL); and oral supplementation with 3 ml of an energy product (Calostrene®) to the SP piglets of the litter (EN). Thirty-nine primiparous sows (Large White × Landrace) and their litters (507 piglets) and 100 multiparous sows and their litters (1,375 piglets) were used. Litters were fixed at 12 piglets. Piglets were weighed through lactation. Mortality was recorded. For primiparous sows, oral supplementation with COL enhanced SP piglets bodyweight (BW) at day 1 compared to CON, SPLIT, and EN. However, no differences on BW were observed at day 18 nor on litter total pre-weaning mortality. Nonetheless, lower SP piglets’ mortality rate was found in CON and EN compared to SPLIT and COL groups in primiparous sows. For multiparous sows, no differences among treatments were observed for SP piglets BW at day 1 or at day 18. Primiparous sows’ SP piglets had higher BW at day 1 than multiparous sows’ SP piglets. Colostrum supplementation of low birth weight piglets improved early weight gain in piglets born from primiparous sows, probably by enhancing their colostrum intake, but it did not affect piglets’ weaning BW or pre-weaning mortality.

A device for analysing mouse behaviour which is based on recording the movements of the animal in a balance test cage has been developed. The amplitude patterns provoked by the movements of the animal correlate with behavioural patterns. The system not only allows differentiation between five behavioural categories: resting, grooming, eating, locomotion and climbing - but also indicates the location of the animal in its cage. Upon validation, the system has proven to be a reliable and time-saving device for the non-invasive recording of behavioural patterns in the mouse.

The mortality and morbidity of unweaned dairy calves and management practices that may impair calf health and welfare were surveyed on 115 farms in Canada (Quebec) and 60 farms in Central Europe (Austria and Germany) to examine whether outcome-based measures of calf health could be used to identify farms that use management practices that place calf health at risk. Quebec herds had higher juvenile mortality incidence than those in Central Europe. Juvenile mortality was poorly estimated by producers. Low levels of mortality did not include low levels of morbidity in the same herds. Health status was not necessarily associated with management practices generally recommended for health and welfare. Many management practices that may impair calf health and welfare were found in Quebec while only some were found in Central Europe; these were related to calving management and care of the newborn, colostrum management, calf-dam separation, calf feeding, weaning and calf housing. Inadequate recording of calf morbidity and mortality can be a problem in using recorded measures to assess the level of calf health on a farm. The recorded mortality and morbidity do not necessarily show the extent that producers use management practices that pose a risk to calf health.

This paper considers the economic consequences and the welfare impact of foot disorders in dairy cattle and the association between them, taking into account clinical and subclinical foot disorders. In dairy farming with cubicle housing and concrete floors, foot disorders are a major welfare problem with serious economic consequences. On average, foot disorders cost €53 per cow per year, of which indirect cost factors are the main cause. Subclinical foot disorders, which are the foot disorders not recognised by dairy farmers, account for 50% of the total welfare impact and 32% of the total costs. The consequences of foot disorders can be difficult to observe and more insight into these consequences is helpful in stimulating actions to improve dairy cow foot health. Digital dermatitis (DD), an infectious foot disorder, is the most serious foot disorder from both an economic and welfare perspective. The correlation between economics and animal welfare impact suggests that reducing the problem of foot disorders from an economic perspective will positively influence the welfare of dairy cows. Insight into economic and welfare consequences of the different foot disorders, including the association between them, can help make dairy farmers more aware and help with decision-making regarding measures to improve dairy cow foot health.

As the harvesting of fish through commercial fisheries becomes both harder and less economically viable, the world is becoming increasingly dependent on aquaculture to provide fish for human consumption. The closely related activity of stock enhancement, whereby large numbers of fish are reared and then released, is a common practice aimed at increasing the numbers of fish in rivers and along coasts. Aquaculture and stock enhancement practices raise a number of welfare and conservation issues both for fish that are reared within captivity, and for the local populations and habitats that are influenced by fish-rearing activities. In this review, we illustrate how fish farms and hatcheries have directly affected fish welfare. Examples cover on-farm fish husbandry and healthcare, the interactions between farmed and wild fish, and survival of fish released for stock enhancement. These aspects are often intertwined with important conservation issues. Thus, we also review direct effects that aquaculture-generated pollution can have on local habitats, issues associated with feeding reared fish, and problems created by alien fish (either escapees or intentionally released fish). While awareness of fish welfare is certainly growing, so is the rate at which fish are reared. There is, therefore, a pressing need to understand the welfare and conservation issues that are affected by aquaculture and stock enhancement.

The ultimate aim of this paper is to study and discuss a central dilemma within inspection of animal welfare. On the one hand, it may be argued that controllers should check only whether farmers comply or not with animal welfare regulation. Here, the key value is the rule of law, and that all offenders should be treated equally. On the other hand, it may be argued that an important component of inspections is to enter into dialogue with farmers. This may be based on a more forward-looking view aimed at motivating farmers to look after the welfare of the animals in their care. In European countries, authorities try to enforce animal welfare legislation through inspections followed up by penalties in instances where a lack of compliance is found. However, the fairness and efficiency, and ultimately the public acceptance of the system, critically depend on the performance of the individual inspector. This paper presents the results of an interview-study into how Danish animal welfare inspectors view their own role and tasks. In the main results, a theme of disagreement presented itself and revealed different attitudes in terms of the possibility of engaging in a dialogue with the farmers. The first theme focused on the preventive aspect. The second had its focus on compliance and on the avoidance of engaging in dialogue with the farmer regarding the reasons for the regulations. Moreover, a theme of agreement showed interpretation as unavoidable. We discuss how the points of view or strategies of the inspectors may affect the outcome of animal welfare inspections, both on a short- and long-term basis. We argue that this study can initiate a necessary and more open discussion of the aforementioned dilemma.

The aim of this study was to explore the use of a hand-held algometer for the measurement of mechanical nociceptive thresholds (MNT) in sheep (Ovis aries). Twelve ewes were tested over three consecutive days by two operators, and MNTs were measured over six predetermined sites on both forelimbs every five minutes for 30 min. The effects of test period, measurement number within test period and different anatomical points on MNT levels were investigated, in addition to establishing baseline MNT levels for the sheeps’ forelimbs. A significant decrease of MNT values was observed over the three consecutive test days and within each test period. The anatomical points located closest to the carpus and fetlock joints had significantly higher MNT values compared to the anatomical points located over the middle part of the metacarpus, possibly due to the protective function of the distal part of the extensor retinaculum and the dorsal pouch of the fetlock joint capsules. There was no difference in MNT values between the right and left foreleg. There was a tendency for a flattening out of the drop in MNT towards the last measurement. Hence, we suggest using the values from the last two measurements when determining normative values, and to habituate the ewes to the procedure of measuring MNT levels. Taking these factors into consideration, a hand-held algometer is a useful tool to measure MNTs in sheep.

Regurgitation and reingestion (R/R) of foodstuffs is a common abnormal behaviour in captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and certain other non-human primates, but it is not part of their normal feeding mechanism. It is similar to a behavioural problem seen in humans, human rumination syndrome (HRS), which can occur in association with anxiety or a poor relationship with a caregiver. Patients with HRS often regurgitate stomach acid with the food matter which can result in clinical problems; until this study, it was not known if stomach acid is regurgitated by gorillas also. Thus, samples of regurgitated matter were collected opportunistically and non-invasively, and pH was measured using an electronic meter. Results were compared with the pH of samples of the original food eaten by the gorillas, and show that regurgitated food has significantly higher acidity than the originally-ingested meal. By comparison, samples of saliva were collected from gorillas opportunistically, in the absence of recent ingestion, and were found to be alkaline and, thus, saliva should not have contributed to the increased acidity of regurgitated matter. The results imply that stomach acid is being regurgitated, as in human patients with potentially-injurious rumination syndrome, and it is indicative of sub-optimal welfare. Causes and effects of R/R should be investigated further, to lead to potential treatment and prevention and to promote the welfare of captive gorillas.

The objective of this study was to identify farm characteristics that were associated with cow (Bos taurus) welfare outcomes, including mortality rate, culling by 60 days of lactation, survival to ≥ 6 years of age and ≥ 5th parity (aged cows), somatic cell score, milk yield, and milk composition. Data were collected on housing systems, feeding systems, pasture strategies, bedding type, labour management practices and other farm characteristics in face-to-face interviews with 314 Pennsylvania dairy herd owners where performance records were available. Five herd management systems were identified in the sample: free-stalls with complete confinement (n = 37); free-stalls that allowed outdoor access (n = 76); tie-stalls with complete confinement (n = 52); tie-stalls with outdoor access and that fed a total mixed ration (n = 72); and tie-stalls with outdoor access and that did not feed a total mixed ration (n = 77). Welfare outcomes were evaluated with multivariable linear regression models and marginal means were estimated for herd management system. Tie-stalls that allowed outdoor access and that did not feed total mixed rations had the lowest mortality rate (2.0%), culling in the first 60 days of lactation (5.1%), and the highest proportion of aged cows (13.8%). Those herds also had high lifetime-to-date milk yield, a low proportion of fat-protein inversions, and low somatic cell scores. Free-stalls with complete confinement had significantly higher levels of mortality (8.3%), culling in the first 60 days of lactation (9.7%), and fewer aged cows (6.4%). It was concluded that shifts toward more efficient herd management systems have not benefited cow health and welfare. This suggests that cow welfare has been compromised to facilitate the economic survival of dairy farms.

A Delphi consultation process was used to examine the validity and feasibility of potential resource-input and animal-based outcome measures of laboratory mouse welfare identified by a comprehensive literature search. The consultation was an iterative two-stage technique that used web and email based questionnaires to gather data. On completion of the second consultation stage a total of 97 measures of mouse welfare, their order of importance, and appropriate sample sizes and sampling times where relevant, were identified. Of these, 55 were resource-input measures that included assessments of the cages, animal rooms environmental conditions, husbandry procedures, provision of food and water, staffing, resources placed into mouse cages, and the establishment policies. The remaining 42 were animal-based outcomes, measures that included assessments of unprovoked behaviour, provoked responses, vocalisations, physical appearance, and health indicators. The measures that were considered by the experts to be appropriate for assessing laboratory mouse welfare measures can be placed into four basic categories: characteristics of the staff, performance of husbandry and care procedures, health and well-being of the mice, and the provision and use of cage resources.

A veterinary surgeon wishing to practice in the UK promises, on admission to the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, that their “constant endeavour will be to ensure the welfare of the animals committed to [their] care” (RCVS 2006 Guide to Professional Conduct). Yet a constant dilemma is that the veterinary surgeon deals with the animal's welfare differently depending on the category into which the particular animal fits at a particular time — even though its ability to suffer is the same whatever the circumstance. A laboratory animal is considered by many to suffer the most insults to welfare, yet its welfare is protected by a plethora of regulations, ethical reviews, best-practice guidelines and vociferous public opinion. While any decision on its treatment will take into account the scientific outcome, the judgement will have been considered by many and the outcome already decided. The companion animal may be much loved by its owner but its veterinary treatment will be affected by the psychological state of that owner and his/her ability to pay; the animal's treatment becomes a ‘family management’ issue. In veterinary treatment of a farm animal, the benchmark for ‘acceptable’ suffering can be quite different; lower levels of welfare may be tolerated over considerable periods. When a wild animal is presented for treatment, the welfare of the individual may not be best served by anything other than euthanasia, yet treatment is often enthusiastically attempted. We explore this inconsistency of approach to animal welfare, using examples, and we attempt to rationalise and raise awareness of the inconsistencies. We propose the use of a welfare illustrator grid to increase cross-sector objectivity and improve harmonisation of approach across the sectors.

The effects of a (30 cm high) elevated platform as an enrichment structure on the behaviour and performance of fattening rabbits kept in groups were investigated. Three housing systems for fattening rabbits were compared using a stocking density of 15 rabbits m–2. The rabbits were housed either in large pens (3.67 m2 plus a platform of 0.39 m2; with 60 rabbits per pen) or in small pens (0.503 m2 plus a platform of 0.159 m2; with10 rabbits per pen), or in conventional standard cages (0.39 m2, with 6 rabbits and without any enrichment) from 31 to 72 days of age. The conventional cages without a platform were used as a control and reference model. Rabbits housed in each small pen or in each cage belonged to the same litter, and the 60 rabbits sharing the same large pen were from six or seven litters. At the end of fattening, rabbits reached the weight of 2,508 g in cages, 2,397 g in small pens, and 2,340 g in large pens; the only significant difference was daily weight gain which was better in cages than in both pens. There was no difference in growth parameters between the two types of pens. The mortality rate was less than 1% for all treatments. No sanitation problems or severe lesions were seen with rabbits even those reared in large pens and large groups. Neither housing systems, nor elevated platform affected activities such as dietary intake or resting. The use of the platform appears to depend upon the amount of space available; in a large pen, an elevated platform can be utilised as an exercise structure while in a small pen it was used more as simply extra space to occupy.

Injurious feather pecking in non-cage systems is a serious economic and welfare concern for the egg-producing industry. Here, we describe the first results from an ongoing collaborative project to improve range environment and welfare of laying hens (Gallus gallus domesticus) within the McDonald's Restaurants Ltd, UK supply base. The objective of this study was to investigate, in a commercial situation, the correlation between: i) proportion of range cover and ii) proportion of canopy cover, with plumage damage of end-of-lay hens. The assessment of plumage damage due to injurious feather pecking is a key animal-based welfare indicator for laying hens in non-cage systems. In 2007 and 2008, all laying-hen producers within the McDonald's Restaurants Ltd egg-supply base, were required to plant (if not present already), 5% of the total range area with blocks of trees ether side, and between 20-25 m from the laying hen house. Plumage damage at end of lay was positively correlated with mortality and flocks depleted in summer had less plumage damage at end of lay than flocks depleted in autumn or winter, possibly because of weather conditions at the time of placement. There was no correlation between the proportion (5-90%) of range cover and plumage damage at the end of lay, however, plumage damage was negatively correlated with percent of canopy cover within tree-planted areas. Providing a minimum of 5% tree cover, planted close to the house but with good canopy coverage, may be a feasible and practical method enabling producers to reduce plumage damage due to injurious feather pecking in their laying-hen flocks. Tree cover provision may also provide environmental benefits, such as soil stabilisation, reduced nutrient leaching and carbon sequestration.

Adrenocortical activity and time budgets in a robotic milking system in two variants of cow traffic (partially forced, free) were compared with a conventional milking system, focusing on the relationships between adrenocortical activity, time budgets, and social rank of the cows. Both groups were housed in identical conditions and consisted of 30 cows each. Within each experiment, direct observations of social behaviour and 24-hour video recordings were conducted during six two-day blocks. We calculated the dominance value and the time budget (‘lying’, ‘feeding’, ‘other activity’) of each cow. Faeces from each cow were collected to determine the concentration of cortisol metabolites (CCM) as an indicator of baseline adrenocortical activity and possible chronic stress. Analysis of CCM and time budgets did not indicate any adverse effects of the robotic milking system, with one exception: under partially-forced cow traffic, cows of low social rank had longer waiting times in front of the robot. Considering the fact that the number of cows milked by the robot was less than half of that recommended by the manufacturers, our results do not exclude the possibility that a higher stocking rate may lead to further adverse effects.

During the commercial slaughter of farmed turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), a total of 67 fish were, on six occasions, removed from their rearing conditions at 14°C and put, as is standard commercial practice, into chilled seawater (-1.5 to -0.8°C) to monitor behavioural, muscular, osmoregulatory and respiratory responses during chilling time (90 min). Results show that a thermal insult alters the iso-osmotic balance, leading not only to an Na+ influx and an intracellular release of Ca2+ and K+, but also to a disturbance of respiratory function, leading to acidosis as a result of H+ and CO2 accumulation, increased pCO2 and reduced HCO3− in the blood. Once the internal temperature dropped below 1°C, the muscles contracted (cold shortening) and, although the fish were still alive, they reverted to a state of rigor, leading to a complete breakdown in their ability to move or ventilate and resembling an unconscious condition or death. Remarkably, the fish were able to prevent themselves undergoing hypoxia as pO2 remained within acceptable limits. No changes in muscle pH were observed and, thus, no noted effects on textural properties. We conclude that live chilling from 14°C to approximately -1°C is a highly questionable practice. It causes physical and physiological changes that are generally associated with stress and, in the case of observed forced muscle contractions, could lead to severe pain. Furthermore, we conclude that cold shortening associated with chilling can be easily mistaken for rigor mortis and, as such, should be subject to further attention in future research on quality.

There is a growing demand for civet coffee (also known as ‘Kopi Luwak’ in Indonesia), a luxury coffee produced from coffee cherries that have been eaten and partially digested by civets. Traditionally made using scat collected from the wild, the trend for ‘caged’ civet coffee, where live civets are taken from the wild and housed in captive conditions, is increasing. There is a rapidly expanding civet coffee tourist industry that has emerged within the last five years in Indonesia. The present paper is based on observations of the housing conditions of 48 wild-caught common palm civets (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) at 16 of these tourist-orientated coffee plantations in Bali. A score between 0-4 indicating welfare concerns was given for eight husbandry factors at each plantation, including: mobility, hygiene, surfaces, shelter, noise, food, water, and social interactions. In addition, interviews were conducted with senior tour guides at each of the plantations to gather information regarding tourist activities and the civet coffee production taking place therein. The data allowed for a welfare assessment to be made, which highlights the inadequate conditions and negative impact on common palm civets associated with the caged commercial production of this luxury product, which are not associated with traditional collection of scat from wild-living civets. We hope that our findings will inform tourists and tour operators about the ethical implications of visiting these attractions.

The welfare of animals in transit may be affected by driving events, such as acceleration, braking and cornering. The relationships between driving events and the behavioural responses of the animals were examined. A single-deck, non-articulated vehicle was fitted with a video-recording system, GPS and tri-axial accelerometer. Two drivers each drove three standard journeys (two 3-h stages on different types of roads) for each animal type. Six different groups of five cattle (Bos taurus), ten calves and ten pigs (Sus scrofa) were each transported on separate journeys. Cattle stood still for most of each journey. Calves spent more time lying down during the second stage of the journey than during the first. Although pigs spent some of the time lying down, they spent more time sitting down and this time was greatest on a motorway and during the second stage of the journey. Frequent adjustments to maintain stability were required in response to acceleration, braking, cornering and rough road surfaces. Some animals experienced repeated falls. Falls occurred after a series of different types of events. The fewest losses of balance occurred on the motorway. As a motorway is a limited access multi-lane carriageway not crossed on the same level by other traffic lanes, the driver does not normally undertake frequent vehicular adjustments to respond to road features. Therefore, motorways give animals an opportunity to rest and avoid discomfort from repetitive driving events. If drivers anticipate potential driving events and prepare for them, it will reduce the likelihood and severity of losses of stability.