Six adult female stumptailed macaques (Macaca arctoides) were trained within a two-week period to actively co-operate during in-homecage venipuncture rather than in a restraint apparatus away from the homecage. The training was based on consistent firmness, gentleness and patience. Total training time per subject ranged from 15 to 45 minutes with a mean of 33.5 minutes. Endocrinological analysis one week after the last training session revealed an insignificant increase (0.49%) in serum Cortisol between venipuncture samples taken 15 minutes apart. It was concluded that training stumptailed macaques to actively co-operate during blood collection in their familiar homecage promotes the animals’ well-being by avoiding undue disturbance; increases the validity of research data collected by minimizing distress, and reduces health risks of the handling personnel by eliminating the need to carry the animals to a special area.

The welfare and productivity of South American camelids may be affected by stressful events. The purpose of this study was to validate a non-invasive method for stress monitoring using faecal samples and to apply it to evaluate a stressful event, such as confinement. For physiological validation, nine alpacas (Vicugna pacos) and six llamas (Lama glama) were subjected to pharmacological stimulation of their adrenal cortex. Serial faecal samples were collected during 48 h before and after stimulation. During confinement, faecal samples from six llamas were collected twice per day during six consecutive days. Faeces belonging to 18 vicuñas (Vicugna vicugna) were collected before and one day after their capture for confinement (Chacu). Faecal cortisol metabolites (FCM) were extracted from each sample and quantified by an 11-oxoaetiocholanolone enzyme immunoassay. Thirty-three and 28 h (median) after ACTH stimulation, FCM concentrations peaked with a ten- and eight-fold increase (median) above baseline in alpacas and llamas, respectively. There were no significant differences in FCM concentrations between sexes. In llamas, FCM concentrations peaked (4.7 times higher than baseline) after five days of confinement in females and after three days (2.7 times) in males. In vicuñas, three times higher FCM levels were observed the day after the start of confinement (in comparison to the starting values). Based on our findings, this non-invasive method is well suited to measure adrenocortical activity in alpacas, llamas and vicuñas. Thus, this method could help to improve management, handling and welfare in wild and domesticated South American camelids.

This study investigates whether foot problems in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) can be linked to: i) enclosure floor type; and ii) the occurrence of repetitive behaviour. Using a questionnaire, we collected information about floor type(s) in the enclosure, occurrence of repetitive behaviour and occurrence of foot problems for 87 Asian elephants (≥ 12 years) in 32 European zoos. The majority of elephants were housed on sand or concrete. A substantial proportion of the study population displayed repetitive behaviour. Respondents observed foot problems in 59 elephants, of which 53 displayed repetitive behaviour. Data analysis showed that elephants with access to sand flooring had a significantly greater chance of displaying stereotypic behaviour. Displaying this behaviour was also age-dependent with older elephants being more likely to do so. Furthermore, elephants that displayed stereotypic behaviour or that were being kept in an environment with sand or concrete flooring were more likely to have foot problems than others. Further research is required to determine whether the relationships between substrate, stereotypic behaviour and foot problems are of a causal nature.

Ulcerative pododermatitis or sore hocks is a common condition in adult rabbits housed in cages with wire-mesh floors. This study was carried out on a recently-opened commercial farm with 224 breeding cages (112 without footrests [NFR] and 112 with footrests [FR]) to assess the effect of footrests on the incidence of sore hocks (SH) and plantar hyperkeratosis (K) on domestic rabbit does, throughout the first part of their productive lives. The accumulated incidence of SH in the fifth lactation was 71.5 and 15.1% for NFR and FR groups, respectively and the accumulated incidence of K, at the same point, was 100 and 64.5%. The footrests were also found to have a curative effect on 81.3% of affected does. Clinical and epidemiological information obtained in this study revealed that the installation of a plastic platform or slatted footrest on the wire mesh played a significant role in the prevention and cure of sore hocks. Problems specifically related to cage hygiene and cleanliness were not addressed in this study.

This review, which focuses on foie gras production from ducks in France, highlights welfare problems that may arise in the final (third) stage of production, when force-feeding occurs and which lasts 12 to 15 days. Welfare problems arising in the first two stages are also considered. The male mulard duck, a non-migratory hybrid between a muscovy drake (Cairina moschata) and a female domestic duck (Anas platyrhynchos), is used most frequently despite being fearful, nervous and maladapted to force-feeding conditions. During the period of force-feeding, mortality is 2 to 6%, higher than in fattening units for meat production. Welfare deteriorates markedly as ducks progress through the three production stages. Posture and gait abnormalities and wing lesions develop, and contact dermatitis is widespread and often severe. Oesophagitis and other injuries are documented. Steatosis and other liver changes are pathological and can limit duck survival. Group housing necessitates the use of crowd-gates to facilitate force-feeding of birds, which show aversive behaviour towards the force-feeder. Cages are small, with a mesh floor without litter or a rest area. Access to open water for bathing or full immersion of the head may be insufficient and make thermoregulation difficult. We conclude that forcefeeding causes very poor welfare in ducks and should not be practised. Should foie gras production without force-feeding become possible, duck livers should not reach a weight at which there are pathological effects. Inadequate housing and management conditions should be prevented by establishing limits for the prevalences of contact dermatitis (foot-pad and digits), breast lesions and gait abnormalities, which should not be exceeded prior to slaughter. Limits should also be established for the prevalence of wing and other body lesions after slaughter.

The mining industry is an important source of noise for wildlife, and the eastern blue-tongued (EBT) lizard (Tiliqua scincoides) is an Australian animal that may be impacted. We analysed the behaviour of nine EBT lizards during and after exposure for 5 s to one of five combinations of mining machinery noise frequency and amplitude (frequency < or > 2 kHz, low [60-65 dB (A)] and high [70-75 dB (A)] amplitude, or a control treatment). Following exposure, lizards could leave the test chamber and enter an escape chamber, which led into a small hiding chamber. Chambers were monitored for 15 min after initial exposure. In the test chamber, lizards exposed to high frequency, high amplitude noise spent more time freezing, a typical stress response in reptiles, when compared with animals in all the other treatments. This was especially the case for lizards exposed to high frequency noise. In the hiding chamber, high frequency noise at high amplitudes decreased durations of head positioning to the right and downwards, suggesting a lateralised fear reaction, but decreased standing and freezing behaviours. We hypothesise that lizards have lateralised behaviour reactions to mining noise, with high frequency, high amplitude noise being the most detrimental. Our results demonstrate that acute exposure to mining noise had negative effects on EBT lizards’ behaviour and welfare, which may suggest a threat for lizards experiencing chronic mining noise in the wild, making the study of mining machinery noise in situ a research priority.

The effect of the pulse width of a direct current (DC) on the effectiveness of electrical water bath stunning, and slaughter, was evaluated in broilers (n = 29). Broilers were individually stunned in a water bath for 1 s with a constant peak current of 400 mA of 200 Hz DC delivered using a variable voltage/constant current stunner. The pulse width of the 200 Hz DC was set at 0.5, 1.5 or 2.5 ms (10, 30 or 50% of 5 ms current cycle). The results showed that pulse width had a significant effect on the incidence of epileptiform activity in the electroencephalograms (EEGs). A pulse width of 10% of the current cycle was less effective than pulse widths of 30 and 50% of the current cycle; there was no significant difference between a pulse width of 30 and 50%. The results of a univariate analysis showed that ventral neck-cutting resulted in a significantly shorter time to the onset of less than 10% of the pre-stun power contents in the 13–30 Hz and 2–30 Hz EEG frequency bands when compared with unilateral neck-cutting. It is concluded that a pulse width of 30 or 50% of the current cycle of 200 Hz DC, delivering 400 mA peak current, was better than using a pulse width of 10% of the current cycle.

To determine if mechanical blunt force trauma using a non-penetrating captive bolt was a viable method of producing an immediate stun/kill in neonate piglets (Sus scrofa domesticus) as an alternative to manual blunt force trauma. Piglets (n = 60) were acquired from a local producer and allocated to one of five weight ranges: birth weight to 3 kg (n = 12); 3 to 5 kg (n = 11); 5 to 7 kg (n = 13); 7 to 9 kg (n = 13); and 9 to 11 kg (n = 11). These piglets with an average live-weight of 6.1 kg were anaesthetised and electroencephalogram (EEG) recording electrodes inserted sub-dermally over the right cranium to allow recording of Visual Evoked Potentials (VEPs). Following recording of baseline VEPs in the anaesthetised state, the piglet was shot once in the frontal-parietal position with a Bock Industries Zephyr EXL non-penetrating captive bolt powered by 120 psi air pressure. Movement scoring, behavioural indices of loss of brain function and VEPs were monitored throughout. VEPs were lost immediately in all piglets shot when the head was resting on a hard surface. This experiment demonstrates that mechanical blunt-force trauma, using a single-shot, non-penetrating captive bolt, such as the Zephyr EXL, provides for an immediate stun kill in neonate piglets up to 10.9 kg live-weight. This immediacy of action, combined with reproducible effects will improve the welfare of piglets to be subjected to on-farm euthanasia due to disease, ill-thrift or other commercial concerns.

A preliminary investigation was undertaken to evaluate a series of animal-based welfare measures for the assessment of finishing pigs in units that were members of the RSPCA Freedom Food farm assurance scheme. A total of 20 finishing pig units were visited in the summer of 2002 and 14 of these were revisited in late winter 2003. Behavioural observations of the pigs, both undisturbed and disturbed by the observer, were made in 128 pens containing 9,444 pigs and the physical condition of 650 individuals was examined. A range of event behaviours were observed including social interactions. Play behaviour was observed in 66% of pens during ten-minute observation periods. The prevalence of physical conditions varied greatly between units. The most prevalent skin lesion was on the flank (40.8%) however, only 4.5% of pigs had both fresh and healed flank lesions suggestive of persistent fighting.

Animals have various behavioural and physiological needs that are important for welfare. Fulfilment of these needs depends on the quality of housing, management and animal characteristics. The objective of this study was to develop a model to assign welfare scores to husbandry systems for dairy cattle, based on scientific results, and thereby supporting the design of new, welfare-friendly systems. COWEL is a computer-based decision support system that contains attributes regarding housing and management conditions. These attributes are technical specifications that contain various technical units called levels. These levels are ranked from best-to-worst regarding welfare, based on scientific information about animal-based parameters. This information, inserted in the model as statements, was weighted depending on the impact it has on welfare by using weighting categories. Thereafter, a weighting factor was calculated for each attribute which determines how important an attribute is for welfare. The COWEL model contains 2,343 statements on dairy cattle welfare from 476 sources found during a literature survey. The model was applied to four husbandry systems, namely a tie-stall, cubicle housing, a straw yard and a pasture-based system. The welfare scores, calculated by COWEL for these husbandry systems, correspond with the general opinion about these systems. A tie-stall receives a low and a pasture-based system a high welfare score: 211 and 271, respectively. A husbandry system can receive a maximum of 313 on the welfare scale of COWEL. We conclude that COWEL can be used to rank husbandry systems on a welfare scale, and may be a useful tool to develop new, sustainable and welfare-friendly systems for dairy cattle.

The long-term effects of infra-red beak treatment (IRBT) in laying hens were investigated by examining beak-nerve function and anatomy over a range of ages. In IRBT and control (intact) birds that were ten, 30 or 50 weeks old, the responses of single sensory nerve fibres were recorded from the intramandibular nerve, which provides sensation to the lower beak. The beaks were also measured and subject to microscopic and radiographic examination. The responses of 386 nerve fibres were recorded including mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors and nociceptors. Receptive field positions indicated that the entire lower beak was sensitive to thermal and mechanical stimuli, regardless of age or treatment. There was no evidence of a treatment effect on nociceptive thresholds at any age. Beak measurements demonstrated that application of IRBT at day-old affected, on average, 36% of beak area, and resulted in a 44% reduction in beak length by four weeks of age. Radiographs produced no evidence of adverse or pathological change in relation to IRBT. Microscopic evaluation of beak-tip anatomy revealed evidence of healing including re-epithelialisation, fibrovascular hyperplasia and bone remodelling. By four weeks of age there was limited nerve regeneration in IRBT beaks, including re-population of mechanoreceptors in some birds. In older birds, re-innervation and scarring was visible, but no neuromas or abnormal proliferations of nerve fibres were observed at any age. Collectively, the results suggest that IRBT does not result in chronic pain or other adverse consequences for sensory function.

Laboratory animals are frequently subjected to routine procedures, such as injections or the withdrawal of blood samples. Acute stress caused by such procedures is associated with physiological changes that can have a strong impact on experimental results. This study investigated the integrated effects of cage enrichment, social housing and handling on the acute stress response of animals subjected to routine experimental procedures. Female mice of two inbred strains (BALB/c and C57BL/6) were housed under either minimal husbandry conditions (MH: no cage enrichment, infrequent handling and a period of individual housing) or enriched husbandry conditions (EH: with cage enrichment, frequent handling and social housing at all times). One mouse in each cage was implanted with a radio-telemetry transmitter for measuring heart rate (HR) and body temperature (BT). The animals were subjected to intraperitoneal injections or short periods of restraint. In addition to telemetry measurements, thymus weight and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) activity were assessed. It was found that individual housing under MH conditions, as compared with social housing under EH conditions, elevated both basal HR and BT, and significantly elevated the relative recovery time following routine experimental procedures. Thymus weight and TH activity suggested a long-term stress response under MH conditions following individual housing, although the influence of transmitter implantation and (repeated) acute stress remains to be investigated. The results emphasise that husbandry conditions should be taken into account when evaluating physiological measures after routine procedures.

We investigated the temporal associations between the severity of foot lesions caused by footrot (FR) and the severity of lameness in sheep. Sixty sheep from one farm were monitored for five weeks. The locomotion of each sheep was scored once each week using a validated numerical rating scale of 0-6. All feet were then examined, FR was the only foot lesion observed; the severity of FR lesions was recorded on a scale from 0 to 4. Sheep had a locomotion score > 0 on 144/298 observations. FR lesions were present on at least one foot on 83% of observations of lame sheep but also present on 27% of observations where sheep were not lame; 95% of these sheep with a lesion but not lame had FR score 1. The results from a linear mixed model with locomotion score as the outcome were that the mean (95% CI) locomotion score of 0.28 (0.02, 0.53) in sheep with no lesions increased by 0.35 (0.05, 0.65) in sheep with FR score 1 or 2 and by 1.55 (1.13, 1.96) in sheep with FR score > 2 at the time of the observation; indicating that as the severity of the lesion increased, the severity of lameness increased. One week before an FR score > 2 was clinically apparent, sheep had a locomotion score 0.81 (0.37, 1.24) higher than sheep that did not have an FR score > 2 in the subsequent week. One week after treatment with intramuscular antibacterials the locomotion score of lame sheep reduced by 1.00 (0.50, 1.49). Our results indicate a positive association between severity of FR lesions and locomotion score and indicate that some non-lame and mildly lame sheep have footrot lesions. Treatment of even those mildly lame will facilitate healing and probably reduce the spread of infection to other sheep in the same group.

The aim of this study was to assess the extent to which three non-invasive measures of welfare in laying hens (egg-shell quality, corticosteroid levels as measured from the birds' faeces, and behavioural preferences) were correlated over a period of five days in two groups of birds. One group had access to an enriched test area (bark chips on the floor and a tray of sprouted wheat); the other group had access to a comparably sized barren area (bare wire mesh floor). The measure of preference used was the amount of time hens spent in the test area as measured each day. It was predicted that birds with access to the less preferred environment would show higher levels of faecal corticosteroids and egg-shell anomalies. However, although the birds showed a preference for the enriched environment from Day 1, the other two measures did not follow the same pattern. Faecal corticosteroid metabolites showed an initial increase in both groups, which declined significantly by Day 4, with the ‘enriched’ birds in fact showing a trend for higher levels than the ‘barren’ birds. Shell thickness also showed a change over the five days, but with a different time course: declining to a minimal level on Day 3 and then rising again by Day 5. No measure of shell quality was significantly different between the two environments, but there was a trend for changes in shell thickness to be more pronounced in eggs from enriched birds. The results indicate the caution that needs to be exercised in using shell quality or corticosteroid measurements in isolation from assessments of what the animals themselves prefer.

For the past 25 years, European badgers (Meles meles) have been subject to culling in Britain in attempts to limit the spread of tuberculosis (TB) to cattle. As part of a far-reaching evaluation of the effectiveness and acceptability of badger culling as a TB control measure, this paper assesses one aspect of the welfare of badger populations subjected to culling: the killing of breeding females, which risks leaving their unweaned cubs to starve in the den. To avoid this possibility, a three-month closed season was adopted, running from 1st February to 30th April, based on the best available estimates of the timing of birth and weaning in British badgers. During May 1999–2003, when a total of 4705 adult badgers were culled, field teams failed to capture 12 unweaned litters when their mothers were despatched. In 31 other cases, lactating females were culled but litters of almost-weaned cubs were also caught and despatched at the same dens, usually within a day of capture of the mother. The number of unweaned cubs missed by culling teams — estimated at approximately nine per year on average — was dramatically lower than that projected by a badger welfare lobby group. Our data suggest that the closed season is effective in reducing the suffering of unweaned cubs in badger populations subject to culling, and we recommend that this measure be maintained should badger culling form a component of any future TB control policy.

Deep body temperature was measured in four wethers and four ewes surgically implanted with biotelemetry devices. Records were taken over several days in the home pen (baseline data) and also in response to three potentially stressful procedures: transport, exposure to a sheepdog, and forced exercise. Loading the animals into a vehicle and transporting them for 2.5h produced a rise in core temperature that, in males, persisted for several hours. Moving the sheep into an outside pen and subsequent exposure to the dog appeared to produce transient increases in body temperature, although these changes were not statistically significant. By contrast, exercise for 30min resulted in a rapid and pronounced (approximately 2°C) temperature rise that was followed by an equally abrupt return to baseline. Sustained increases in deep body temperature or changes in circadian temperature rhythms in healthy sheep may be a response to psychological distress and, therefore, indicative of poor welfare.

Chinchilla lanigera intensive breeding programmes are affected by an abnormal repetitive behaviour called ‘fur-chewing’, yet the aetiology is still unknown and little scientific work has been published on this condition. Recent studies have supported the idea that fur-chewing is a stress-related behaviour. In the present study, we used a questionnaire survey in order to: 1) describe general aspects on the epidemiology of fur-chewing in Argentinian farms, and 2) identify which management and/or environmental factors within the breeding facilities may be influencing the occurrence of fur-chewing. The survey consisted of 28 questions focused on farm characteristics, environmental variables and husbandry routines, and was distributed to Argentinian chinchilla farmers. All quantitative variables were tested in a multiple logistic regression model. The mean incidence of fur-chewing was 4.32 ± 0.37% (n = 107 farms). Variables negatively related to fur-chewing were the breeder experience in the activity, the total volume of the facility, and the number of wood shaving changes per week. Positive relationships were found for space index, number of rooms in the facility and presence of different rooms for fur production and reproduction. Other tendencies suggested that farms with the presence of external sound disturbance nearby had higher incidence levels. Also, we detected a tendency towards lower numbers of affected animals with an increment in the provision of dusting baths per week. Finally, results suggested a female prevalence in the development of the behaviour.

Members of the cat family are highly motivated to hunt, but in captivity are unable to do so for a variety of reasons. This inability to hunt may reduce their welfare. In this study we used a moving bait to stimulate and release hunting motivation in two captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). Essentially our enrichment device consisted of a dead rabbit, hung from a pulley, just above the ground, moving down a 34 metre length of wire by the force of gravity. We observed the cheetahs for 140 minutes per day over three sequential food presentation periods: Baseline (10 consecutive days), Device (10 consecutive days) and Post-device (5 consecutive days). The moving bait significantly increased the frequency of sprinting (hunting) and time spent performing observations. It significantly decreased time spent in affiliation and feeding. These effects were also observed at times other than when the moving bait was presented. Thus, a moving bait allows captive cheetahs to perform ‘natural-looking’ hunting in captivity.

The response to a one-hour road journey was observed in 145 semi-feral ponies unused to handling. Ponies were transported singly or in groups of four or eight at a typical commercial ‘high’ stocking density or at a slightly reduced ‘low’ density (range 139 to 316 kg m−2). Blood samples were obtained for plasma biochemistry post transport. Behaviour during the journey of 40.2 miles was recorded using overhead video cameras. Analysis of these revealed that levels of aggression were lower in groups of four, as were the number of slips, falls, stumbles and collisions (SFSC). Within groups of four or eight, reduced stocking density was associated with lower levels of plasma cortisol and creatine kinase, reduced aggression and fewer SFSC. Levels of aggression pre-transit (observed over one hour the day before travel) were not predictive of aggression on the lorry. Single ponies were constrained to align at right angles to the direction of transport, whereas ponies transported in groups could also align forwards or backwards and were able to re-align themselves during transport especially at reduced stocking density. Of those transported singly, younger ponies showed separation anxiety, with highly-significantly greater levels of pawing and sniffing at the ground and increased packed cell volume. Thus, transporting young, untamed ponies singly is not recommended. A suitable maximum stocking density for ponies transported in groups would be approximately 200 kg m−2. However, minimum stocking density for grouped and single untamed ponies transported by road requires future investigation. Whilst stocking density was correlated with many of the variables measured during transport, stocking rate (animals per unit floor area) was not.

An animal's welfare state is intrinsically linked to its affective state. Evidence suggests that sentient, conscious animals can experience a range of affective states, such as pain, fear or boredom as well as positive affects like joy, curiosity, satiation or lust. In the behavioural assessment of animal welfare, there is increasing recognition that it is not simply which behaviours an animal engages in but also the quality of its movement. Kinematics is an approach which is being more widely applied to the behavioural assessment of animal welfare. Kinematics is a field of mechanics that describes the movement of points on a body by defining these points in a coordinate system and precisely tracking how they change in terms of space and time. A major opportunity exists for using kinematic technology to inform our understanding of the emotional state of animals. This review argues that kinematics is a useful methodology for identifying and characterising movement indicative of an animal's affective state. It demonstrates that kinematics: i) appears useful in detecting subtleties in the expression of affective states; ii) could be used in conjunction with, and add extra information to, affective tests (for example, an approach/avoidance paradigm); and iii) could potentially, eventually, be developed into an automated affective state detection system for improving the welfare of animals used in research or production. Furthering our knowledge of animal affective states using kinematics requires engagement from many areas of science outside of animal welfare, such as sports science, computer science, engineering and psychology.